Filipino Americans

Filipino Americans (Filipino: Mga Pilipinong Amerikano) are Americans of Filipino ancestry. Filipinos in North America were first documented in the 16th century and other small settlements beginning in the 18th century. Mass migration did not begin until after the end of the Spanish–American War at the end of the 19th century, when the Philippines was ceded from Spain to the United States in the Treaty of Paris.

Filipino Americans
Mga Pilipinong Amerikano

Map depicting Filipino Americans percentage-wise by U.S. state, per the 2010 US census
Total population
4.2 million (2019)
Regions with significant populations
as of 2010
California	1,651,933
Hawaii	367,364
Texas	194,427
Washington	178,300
Nevada	169,462
Illinois	159,385
New York	144,436
Florida	143,481
New Jersey	129,514
Virginia	108,128
Languages
English (American, Philippine), Tagalog (Filipino), Ilocano, Pangasinan, Kapampangan, Bikol, Visayan languages (Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Waray, Chavacano), and other languages of the Philippines Spanish, Chinese (Minnan and Fujien)
Religion
65% Roman Catholicism 21% Protestantism 8% Irreligion 1% Buddhism
Related ethnic groups
Overseas Filipinos

As of 2022, there were almost 4.5 million Filipino Americans in the United States with large communities in California, Hawaii, Illinois, Texas, Florida, Nevada, and the New York metropolitan area. Around one third of Filipino-Americans identify as multiracial or multiethnic, with 3 million reporting only Filipino ancestry and 1.5 million reporting Filipino in combination with another group.

Terminology

The term Filipino American is sometimes shortened to Fil-Am or Pinoy. Another term which has been used is Philippine Americans. The earliest appearance of the term Pinoy (feminine Pinay), was in a 1926 issue of the Filipino Student Bulletin. Some Filipinos believe that the term Pinoy was coined by Filipinos who came to the United States to distinguish themselves from Filipinos living in the Philippines. Beginning in 2017, started by individuals who identify with the LGBT+ Filipino American population, there is an effort to adopt the term FilipinX; this new term has faced opposition within the broader overseas Filipino diaspora, within the Philippines, and in the United States, with some who are in opposition believing it is an attempt of a "colonial imposition".

Background

Five images of the Filipino settlement at Saint Malo, Louisiana

Filipino sailors were the first Asians in North America. The first documented presence of Filipinos in what is now the United States dates back to October 1587 around Morro Bay, California, with the first permanent settlement in Saint Malo, Spanish Louisiana, in 1763, the settlers there were called "Manilamen" and they served in the Battle of New Orleans during the closing stages of the War of 1812, after the Treaty of Ghent had already been signed. There were then small settlements of Filipinos beginning in the 18th century, and Filipinos worked as cowboys and ranch hands in the 1800s. There was also a settlement in Plaquemines Parish, which became known as "Manila Village". This area was the center of the shrimp drying industry in Louisiana, and its workforce was composed predominantly of Filipino migrants. Mass migration began in the early 20th century when, for a period following the 1898 Treaty of Paris, the Philippines was a territory of the United States. By 1904, Filipino peoples of different ethnic backgrounds were imported by the U.S. government onto the Americas and were displayed at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition as part of a (human zoo). During the 1920s, many Filipinos immigrated to the United States as unskilled labor, to provide better opportunities for their families back at home.

Philippine independence was recognized by the United States on July 4, 1946. After independence in 1946, Filipino American numbers continued to grow. Immigration was reduced significantly during the 1930s, except for those who served in the United States Navy, and increased following immigration reform in the 1960s. The majority of Filipinos who immigrated after the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 were skilled professionals and technicians.

The 2010 census counted 3.4 million Filipino Americans; the United States Department of State in 2011 estimated the total at 4 million, or 1.1% of the U.S. population. They are the country's second largest self-reported Asian after Chinese Americans according to 2010 American Community Survey. They are also the largest population of Overseas Filipinos. Significant populations of Filipino Americans can be found in California, Florida, Texas, Hawaii, the New York metropolitan area, and Illinois.

Culture

The history of Spanish and American rule and contact with merchants and traders culminated in a unique blend of Eastern and Western cultures in the Philippines. Filipino American cultural identity has been described as fluid, adopting aspects from various cultures; that said, there has not been significant research into the culture of Filipino Americans.(Fashion), dance, (music), (theater) and arts have all had roles in building Filipino American cultural identities and communities.^[]

In areas of sparse Filipino population, they often form loosely-knit social organizations aimed at maintaining a "sense of family", which is a key feature of Filipino culture. These organizations generally arrange social events, especially of a charitable nature, and keep members up-to-date with local events. Organizations are often organized into regional associations. The associations are a small part of Filipino American life. Filipino Americans formed close-knit neighborhoods, notably in California and Hawaii. A few communities have "(Little Manilas)", civic and business districts tailored for the Filipino American community. In a Filipino party, shoes should be left in the front of the house and greet everyone with a hi or hello. When greeting older relatives, 'po' and 'opo' must be said in every sentence to show respect.

Some Filipinos have traditional Philippine surnames, such as Bacdayan or Macapagal, while others have surnames derived from (Japanese), Indian, and Chinese and reflect centuries of trade with these merchants preceding European and American rule. Reflecting its 333 years of Spanish rule, many Filipinos adopted Hispanic surnames, and celebrate fiestas.

Despite being from Asia, Filipinos are sometimes called "(Latinos)" due to their historical relationship to Spanish colonialism; this view is not universally accepted. The Philippines experienced both Spanish and American colonial territorial status, with its population seen through each nation's racial constructs. This shared history may also contribute to why some Filipinos choose to also identify as Hispanic or Latino, while others may not and identify more as Asian Americans. In a 2017 Pew Research Survey, only 1% of immigrants from the Philippines identified as Hispanic.

Due to history, the Philippines and the United States are connected culturally. In 2016, there was $16.5 billion worth of trade between the two countries, with the United States being the largest foreign investor in the Philippines, and more than 40% of (remittances) came from (or through) the United States. In 2004, the amount of remittances coming from the United States was $5 billion; this is an increase from the $1.16 billion sent in 1991 (then about 80% of total remittances being sent to the Philippines), and the $324 million sent in 1988. Some Filipino Americans have chosen to retire in the Philippines, buying real estate. Filipino Americans, continue to travel back and forth between the United States and the Philippines, making up more than a tenth of all foreign travelers to the Philippines in 2010; when traveling back to the Philippines they often bring cargo boxes known as a (balikbayan box).

Language

Tagalog language spread in the United States.

Filipino and English are constitutionally established as official languages in the Philippines, and Filipino is designated as the national language, with English in wide use. Many Filipinos speak Philippine English, a dialect derived from American English due to (American colonial) influence in the country's education system and due to limited Spanish (education). Among Asian Americans in 1990, Filipino Americans had the smallest percentage of individuals who had problems with English. In 2000, among U.S.-born Filipino Americans, three quarters responded that English is their primary language; nearly half of Filipino Americans speak English exclusively.

In 2003, Tagalog was the fifth most-spoken language in the United States, with 1.262 million speakers; by 2011, it was the fourth most-spoken language in the United States. Tagalog usage is significant in California, Nevada, and Washington, while Ilocano usage is significant in Hawaii. Many of California's public announcements and documents are translated into Tagalog. in some public schools in the United States, as well as at some colleges. Other significant Filipino languages are Ilocano and Cebuano. Other languages spoken in Filipino American households include Pangasinan, Kapampangan, Hiligaynon, Bicolano and Waray. However, fluency in Philippine languages tends to be lost among second- and third-generation Filipino Americans. Other languages of the community include Spanish and Chinese (Hokkien and Mandarin). The demonym, Filipinx, is a gender-neutral term that is applied only to those of Filipino heritage in the diaspora, specifically Filipino-Americans. The term is not applied to Filipinos in the Philippines.

Religion

Religious Makeup of Filipino-Americans (2012)

  Catholicism (65%)

  Evangelical Protestant (12%)

  Mainline Protestant (9%)

  Unaffiliated (8%)

  Other Christian (3%)

  Buddhism (1%)

  Other (2%)

The Philippines is 90% Christian, one of only two predominantly Christian countries in Southeast Asia, along with East Timor. Following the European arrival to the Philippines by Ferdinand Magellan, Spaniards made a concerted effort to convert Filipinos to Catholicism; outside of the and animist societies, (missionaries) were able to convert large numbers of Filipinos. and the majority are Roman Catholic, giving Catholicism a major impact on Filipino culture. Other Christian denominations include Protestants (Aglipayan, Episcopalian, and others), and nontrinitarians (Iglesia ni Cristo and Jehovah's Witnesses). Additionally there are those Filipinos who are Muslims, (Buddhist) or nonreligious; religion has served as a dividing factor within the Philippines and Filipino American communities.

During the early part of the United States governance in the Philippines, there was a concerted effort to convert Filipinos into Protestants, and the results came with varying success. As Filipinos began to migrate to the United States, Filipino Roman Catholics were often not embraced by their American Catholic brethren, nor were they sympathetic to a Filipino-ized Catholicism, in the early 20th century. This led to creation of ethnic-specific parishes; one such parish was St. Columban's Church in Los Angeles. In 1997, the Filipino oratory was dedicated at the Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception, owing to increased diversity within the congregations of American Catholic parishes. The first-ever American Church for Filipinos, (San Lorenzo Ruiz Church) in New York City, is named after the first saint from the Philippines, (San Lorenzo Ruiz). This was officially designated as a church for Filipinos in July 2005, the first in the United States, and the second in the world, after a church in Rome.

In 2010, Filipino American Catholics were the largest population of Asian American Catholics, making up more than three fourths of Asian American Catholics. In 2015, a majority (65%) of Filipino Americans identify as Catholic; this is down slightly from 2004 (68%). Filipino Americans, who are first generation immigrants were more likely to attend mass weekly, and tended to be more conservative, than those who were born in the United States. Culturally, some traditions and beliefs rooted from the original indigenous religions of Filipinos are still known among the Filipino diaspora.

Cuisine

A Filipino (fusion) in the greater Los Angeles area

A Filipino fusion food truck in the San Francisco Bay Area

The number of Filipino restaurants does not reflect the size of the population. Due to the restaurant business not being a major source of income for the community, few non-Filipinos are familiar with the cuisine. Although American cuisine influenced Filipino cuisine, it has been criticized by non-Filipinos. Even on Oahu where there is a significant Filipino American population, Filipino cuisine is not as noticeable as other Asian cuisines. One study found that Filipino cuisine was not often listed in (Food frequency questionnaires). On television, Filipino cuisine has been criticized, such as on Fear Factor, and praised, such as on (Anthony Bourdain: No Reservations), and (Bizarre Foods America).

Yet Filipino cuisine deserves appreciation and understanding on its own terms, beyond Western expectations. Criticism regarding Filipino cuisine often stems from a Western perspective, focusing on the “weird” and “unusual” while overlooking its richness and culture. It is important to recognize that it is a representation of traditions, diverse cultures, and regional flairs.

While “new” Filipino restaurants and fusion-type places have been opening up, traditionally, “native cuisine proved itself strong and resistant to 'fraternization' with foreign invaders. The original dishes have retained their ingredients, cooking methods, and spirit.”

Filipino cuisine is much like its culture, a blend of many influences through the years of colonization. Popular Filipino dishes such as pancit has Hokkien roots, adobo from Spain and Mexico, and the use of bagoong and patis, fermented sauces that stem from Malay origins.

Filipino American chefs cook in many fine dining restaurants, including (Cristeta Comerford) who is the executive chef in the White House, though many do not serve Filipino cuisine in their restaurants. Reasons given for the lack of Filipino cuisine in the U.S. include (colonial mentality), lack of a clear identity, a preference for cooking at home, a continuing preference of Filipino Americans for cuisines other than their own, and the nebulous nature of Filipino cuisine itself due to its historical influences.Filipino cuisine remains prevalent among Filipino immigrants, with restaurants and grocery stores catering to the Filipino American community, including Jollibee, a Philippines-based fast-food (chain).

In the 2010s, successful and critically reviewed Filipino American restaurants were featured in The New York Times. That same decade began a Filipino Food movement in the United States; it has been criticized for gentrification of the cuisine.Bon Appetit named (Bad Saint) in Washington, D.C. "the second best new restaurant in the United States" in 2016. named Lasa, in Los Angeles, one of its restaurants of the year in 2018. With this emergence of Filipino American restaurants, food critics like (Andrew Zimmern) have predicted that Filipino food will be "the next big thing" in American cuisine. Yet in 2017, Vogue described the cuisine as "misunderstood and neglected";SF Weekly in 2019, later described the cuisine as "marginal, underappreciated, and prone to weird booms-and-busts".

Family

Filipino Americans undergo experiences that are unique to their own identities. These experiences derive from both the Filipino culture and American cultures individually and the dueling of these identities as well. These stressors, if great enough, can lead Filipino Americans into suicidal behaviors. Members of the Filipino community learn early on about kapwa, which is defined as "interpersonal connectedness or togetherness".

With kapwa, many Filipino Americans have a strong sense of needing to repay their family members for the opportunities that they have been able to receive. An example of this is a new college graduate feeling the need to find a job that will allow them to financially support their family and themselves. This notion comes from "utang na loob," defined as a debt that must be repaid to those who have supported the individual.

With kapwa and utang na loob as strong forces enacting on the individual, there is an "all or nothing" mentality that is being played out. In order to bring success back to one's family, there is a desire to succeed for one's family through living out a family's wants as opposed to one's own true desires. This can manifest as one entering a career path that they are not passionate in, but select in order to help support their family.

Despite many of the stressors for these students deriving from family, it also becomes apparent that these are the reasons that these students are resilient. When family conflict rises in Filipino American families, there is a negative association with suicide attempts. This suggests that though family is a presenting stressor in a Filipino American's life, it also plays a role for their resilience. In a study conducted by Yusuke Kuroki, family connectedness, whether defined as positive or negative to each individual, served as one means of lowering suicide attempts.

Media

Beginning in the late 1800s, Filipino Americans began publishing books in the United States. The growth of publications for the (masses in the Philippines) accelerated during the American period.Ethnic media serving Filipino Americans dates back to the beginning of the 20th Century. In 1905, (pensionados) at University of California, Berkeley published The Filipino Students' Magazine. One of the earliest Filipino American newspapers published in the United States, was the Philippine Independent of Salinas, California, which began publishing in 1921. Newspapers from the Philippines, to include The Manila Times, also served the Filipino diaspora in the United States. In 1961, the Philippine News was started by (Alex Esclamado), which by the 1980s had a national reach and at the time was the largest English-language Filipino newspaper. While many areas with Filipino Americans have local Filipino newspapers, one of the largest concentrations of these newspapers occur in Southern California. Beginning in 1992, Filipinas began publication, and was unique in that it focused on American born Filipino Americans of the second and third generation.Filipinas ended its run in 2010, however it was succeeded by (Positively Filipino) in 2012 which included some of the staff from Filipinas. The Filipino diaspora in the United States are able to watch programming from the Philippines on television through (GMA Pinoy TV) and The Filipino Channel.

Politics

(Headquarters) of the government in exile and temporary capital of the Commonwealth of the Philippines

Filipino Americans have traditionally been socially conservative, particularly with "second wave" immigrants; the first Filipino American elected to office was (Peter Aduja). In the 2004 U.S. Presidential Election Republican president George W. Bush won the Filipino American vote over John Kerry by nearly a two-to-one ratio, which followed strong support in the 2000 election. However, during the 2008 U.S. Presidential Election, Filipino Americans voted majority Democratic, with 50% to 58% of the community voting for President Barack Obama and 42% to 46% voting for Senator John McCain. The 2008 election marked the first time that a majority of Filipino Americans voted for a Democratic presidential candidate.

According to the 2012 National Asian American Survey, conducted in September 2012, 45% of Filipinos were independent or nonpartisan, 27% were Republican, and 24% were Democrats. Additionally, Filipino Americans had the largest proportions of Republicans among Asian Americans polled, a position normally held by Vietnamese Americans, leading up to the 2012 election, and had the lowest job approval opinion of Obama among Asian Americans. In a survey of Asian Americans from thirty seven cities conducted by the (Asian American Legal Defense and Education Fund), it found that of the Filipino American respondents, 65% voted for Obama. According to an exit poll conducted by the Asian American Legal Defense and Education Fund, it found that 71% of responding Filipino Americans voted for Hillary Clinton during the 2016 general election.

In a survey conducted by the Asian Americans Advancing Justice in September 2020, it found that of the 263 Filipino American respondents, 46% identified as Democrats, 28% identified as Republicans, and 16% as independent. According to interviews conducted by Anthony Ocampo, an academic, Filipino American supporters of Donald Trump cited their support for the former President based on support for building a border wall, tax cuts to businesses, legal immigration, school choice, opposition to abortion, opposition to affirmative action, antagonism towards the Peoples' Republic of China, and viewing Trump as a non-racist. There was an age divide among Filipino Americans, with older Filipino Americans more likely to support Trump or be Republicans, while younger Filipino Americans more likely to support Biden or be Democrats. In the 2020 presidential election, Philippines Ambassador Jose Manuel Romualdez alleges that 60% of Filipino Americans reportedly voted for Joe Biden. A Filipino American was among those who were at the 2021 United States Capitol attack. Rappler alleges that Filipino-American media has heavily repeated QAnon conspiracies. Rappler further alleges that, many Filipino Americans that voted for Trump, and adhere to QAnon, do cite similar political leanings in the Philippines regarding Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte, and anti-Chinese sentiment since China has been building artificial reefs in the South China Sea near the Philippines in the 2010s and have recently seen the Republican Party as more hardline against the Chinese government's actions. Filipino Americans have also been more receptive to gun rights compared to other Asian American ethnic groups. This is in part due to (the lax gun laws in the Philippines).

Due to scattered living patterns, it is nearly impossible for Filipino American candidates to win an election solely based on the Filipino American vote. Filipino American politicians have increased their visibility over the past few decades. (Ben Cayetano) (Democrat), former governor of Hawaii, became the first governor of Filipino descent in the United States. The number of Congressional members of Filipino descent doubled to numbers not reached since 1937, (two) when the Philippine Islands were represented by non-voting Resident Commissioners, due to the 2000 Senatorial Election. In 2009 three Congress-members claimed at least one-eighth Filipino ethnicity; the largest number to date. Since the resignation of Senator John Ensign in 2011 (the only Filipino American to have been a member of the Senate), and Representative (Steve Austria) (the only Asian Pacific American Republican in the 112th Congress) choosing not to seek reelection and retire, Representative (Robert C. Scott) was the only Filipino American in the 113th Congress. In the 116th United States Congress, Scott was joined by Rep. TJ Cox, bringing the number of Filipino Americans in Congress to two. In the 117th United States Congress, Scott once again became the sole Filipino-American Representative after Cox was defeated in a rematch against David Valadao.

Community issues

Immigration

Quarters for Filipino workers at a salmon cannery in Nushagak, Alaska in 1917.

Company labor camp for Filipino farm laborers on (Ryer Island) in 1940

The Citizenship Retention and Re-Acquisition Act of 2003 (Republic Act No. 9225) made Filipino Americans eligible for dual citizenship in the United States and the Philippines. Overseas suffrage was first employed in the May 2004 elections in which Philippine President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo was reelected to a second term.

By 2005, about 6,000 Filipino Americans had become dual citizens of the two countries. One effect of this act was to allow Filipino Americans to invest in the Philippines through land purchases, which are limited to Filipino citizens, and, with some limitations, former citizens.), vote in Philippine elections, retire in the Philippines, and participate in representing the Philippine flag. In 2013, for the (Philippine general election) there were 125,604 registered Filipino voters in the United States and Caribbean, of which only 13,976 voted.

Dual citizens have been recruited to participate in international sports events including athletes (representing the Philippines) who competed in the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens, and the Olympic Games in (Beijing 2008).

The Philippine government actively encourages Filipino Americans to visit or return permanently to the Philippines via the "Balikbayan" program and to invest in the country.

Filipinos remain one of the largest immigrant groups to date with over 40,000 arriving annually since 1979. The United States Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) has a preference system for issuing visas to non-citizen family members of U.S. citizens, with preference based generally on familial closeness. Some non-citizen relatives of U.S. citizens spend long periods on waiting lists. Petitions for immigrant visas, particularly for siblings of previously naturalized Filipinos that date back to 1984, were not granted until 2006. As of 2016^[update], over 380 thousand Filipinos were on the visa wait list, second only to Mexico and ahead of India, Vietnam and China. Filipinos have the longest waiting times for family reunification visas, as Filipinos disproportionately apply for family visas; this has led to visa petitions filed in July 1989 still waiting to be processed in March 2013.

Illegal immigration

It has been documented that Filipinos were among those naturalized due to the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986. In 2009, the Department of Homeland Security estimated that 270,000 Filipino were "unauthorized immigrants". This was an increase of 70,000 from a previous estimate in 2000. In both years, Filipinos accounted for 2% of the total. As of 2009^[update], Filipinos were the fifth-largest community of illegal immigrants behind Mexico (6.65 million, 62%), El Salvador (530,000, 5%), Guatemala (480,000, 4%), and Honduras (320,000, 3%). In January 2011, the Department of Homeland Security estimate of "unauthorized immigrants" from the Philippines remained at 270,000. By 2017, the number of Filipinos who were in the United States illegally increased to 310,000. Filipinos who reside in the United States illegally are known within the Filipino community as "TnT's" (tago nang tago 'hide and hide').

Mental health

Identity

Filipino Americans may be mistaken for members of other racial/ethnic groups, such as Latinos or Pacific Islanders; this may lead to "mistaken" discrimination that is not specific to Asian Americans. Filipino Americans additionally, have had difficulty being categorized, termed by one source as being in "perpetual absence".

In the period, prior to 1946, Filipinos were (taught) that they were American, and presented with an idealized America. They had official status as United States nationals. When ill-treated and discriminated by other Americans, Filipinos were faced with the (racism) of that period, which undermined these ideals.(Carlos Bulosan) later wrote about this experience in (America is in the Heart). Even (pensionados), who immigrated on government scholarships, were treated poorly.

In Hawaii, Filipino Americans often have little identification with their heritage, and it has been documented that many disclaim their ethnicity. This may be due to the "", or the idea that Western ideals and physical characteristics are superior to their own. Although categorized as Asian Americans, Filipino Americans have not fully embraced being part of this racial category due to marginalization by other Asian American groups and or the dominant American society. This created a struggle within Filipino American communities over how far to assimilate. The term "white-washed" has been applied to those seeking to further assimilate. Those who disclaim their ethnicity lose the positive adjustment to outcomes that are found in those who have a strong, positive, ethnic identity.

Of the ten largest immigrant groups, Filipino Americans have the highest rate of assimilation. with exception to the cuisine; Filipino Americans have been described as the most "Americanized" of the Asian American ethnicities. However, even though Filipino Americans are the second largest group among Asian Americans, community activists have described the ethnicity as "invisible", claiming that the group is virtually unknown to the American public, and is often not seen as significant even among its members. Another term for this status is forgotten minority.

This description has also been used in the political arena, given the lack of (political mobilization). In the mid-1990s it was estimated that some one hundred Filipino Americans have been elected or appointed to public office. This lack of political representation contributes to the perception that Filipino Americans are invisible.

The concept is also used to describe how the ethnicity has assimilated. Few affirmative action programs target the group although affirmative action programs rarely target Asian Americans in general. Assimilation was easier given that the group is majority religiously Christian, fluent in English, and have high levels of education. The concept was in greater use in the past, before the post-1965 wave of arrivals.

The term invisible minority has been used for Asian Americans as a whole, and the term "" has been applied to Filipinos as well as other Asian American groups. Filipino critics allege that Filipino Americans are ignored in immigration literature and studies.

As with fellow Asian Americans, Filipino Americans are viewed as "perpetual foreigners", even for those born in the United States. This has resulted in physical attacks on Filipino Americans, as well as non-violent forms of discrimination.

In college and high school campuses, many Filipino American student organizations put on annual Pilipino Culture Nights to showcase dances, perform skits, and comment on the issues such as identity and lack of cultural awareness due to assimilation and colonization.

(Filipino American gay, lesbian, transgender, and bisexual identities) are often shaped by immigration status, generation, religion, and racial formation.

Suicide ideation and depression

Mental health is a topic that is seldom spoken about among the Filipino American community because of the stigma that is attached to it. In the documentary "Silent Sacrifices: Voices of the Filipino American Family" Patricia Heras points out that a lack of communication between 1st generation and 2nd generation Filipino American immigrants can lead to family members not understanding the personal hardships that each one goes through. Some of the main topics of discussion in this documentary are depression and suicide ideation experienced by the 2nd generation youth. These topics are supported by a study that was conducted in 1997 by the Federal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) that revealed that 45.6% of Filipina American teenage students in San Diego public schools had seriously thought about committing suicide. Half of those students had actually attempted suicide. Although depression cannot be said to cause suicide, the high scores of depression and low self-esteem show a relation to the high scores of suicidal thoughts among Filipinos.

Depression in Filipinos can sometimes be difficult to notice without digging deeper into their feelings. Filipinos can display their depression in many ways such as showing extreme suffering or smiling even when it may not seem authentic. Some of the common causes of depression include: financial worries, family separation during the immigration process, and cultural conflict. One of these cultural conflicts is the belief that one must base decisions on what will "save face" for the family. A study was published in 2018 by Janet Chang and Frank Samson about Filipino American youth and their non-Filipino friends. They had found that Filipino American youth with three or more close non-Filipino friends were more likely to experience depression and anxiety more so than Filipino American youth with two or less non-Filipino friends that they considered to be close. Although having friends of diverse backgrounds gave these Filipinos a sense of inclusion among their peers, they also gained a heightened awareness of discrimination.

Veterans

(Manila American Cemetery and Memorial)

During World War II, some 250,000 to 400,000 Filipinos served in the United States Military, in units including the Philippine Scouts, under (U.S. Command), and recognized guerrillas during the Japanese Occupation. In January 2013, ten thousand surviving Filipino American veterans of World War II lived in the United States, and a further fourteen thousand in the Philippines, although some estimates found eighteen thousand or fewer surviving veterans.

The U.S. government promised these soldiers all of the benefits afforded to other veterans. However, in 1946, the United States Congress passed the (Rescission Act of 1946) which stripped Filipino (veterans) of the promised benefits. One estimate claims that monies due to these veterans for back pay and other benefits exceeds one billion dollars. Of the sixty-six countries allied with the United States during the war, the Philippines is the only country that did not receive military benefits from the United States. The phrase "Second Class Veterans" has been used to describe their status.

Filipino American World War II veterans at the White House in 2003

Many Filipino veterans traveled to the United States to lobby Congress for these benefits. Since 1993, numerous bills have been introduced in Congress to pay the benefits, but all died in committee. As recently as 2018, these bills have received bipartisan support.

Representative Hanabusa submitted legislation to award Filipino Veterans with a Congressional Gold Medal. Known as the Filipino Veterans of World War II Congressional Gold Medal Act, it was referred to the (Committee on Financial Services) and the Committee on House Administration. As of February 2012 had attracted 41 cosponsors. In January 2017, the medal was approved.

There was a proposed lawsuit to be filed in 2011 by The Justice for Filipino American Veterans against the Department of Veterans Affairs.

In the late 1980s, efforts towards reinstating benefits first succeeded with the incorporation of Filipino veteran naturalization in the Immigration Act of 1990. Over 30,000 such veterans had immigrated, with mostly American citizens, receiving benefits relating to their service.

Similar language to those bills was inserted by the Senate into the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 which provided a one time payment of at least 9,000 USD to eligible non-US Citizens and US$15,000 to eligible US Citizens via the (Filipino Veterans Equity Compensation Fund). These payments went to those recognized as soldiers or guerrillas or their spouses. The list of eligibles is smaller than the list recognized by the Philippines. Additionally, recipients had to waive all rights to possible future benefits. As of March 2011, 42 percent (24,385) of claims had been rejected; By 2017, more than 22,000 people received about $226 million in one time payments.

In the 113th Congress, Representative (Joe Heck) reintroduced his legislation to allow documents from the Philippine government and the U.S. Army to be accepted as proof of eligibility. Known as H.R. 481, it was referred to the (Committee on Veterans' Affairs). In 2013, the U.S. released a previously classified report detailing guerrilla activities, including guerrilla units not on the "Missouri list".

In September 2012, the Social Security Administration announced that non-resident Filipino World War II veterans were eligible for certain social security benefits; however an eligible veteran would lose those benefits if they visited for more than one month in a year, or immigrated.

Beginning in 2008, a bipartisan effort started by Mike Thompson and Tom Udall an effort began to recognize the contributions of ; by the time Barack Obama signed the effort into law in 2016, a mere fifteen thousand of those veterans were estimated to be alive. Of those living Filipino veterans of World War II, there were an estimated 6,000 living in the United States. Finally in October 2017, the recognition occurred with the awarding of a Congressional Gold Medal. When the medal was presented by the Speaker of the United States House of Representatives, several surviving veterans were at the ceremony. The medal now resides in the National Museum of American History.

Holidays

Congress established Asian Pacific American Heritage Month in May to commemorate Filipino American and other Asian American cultures. Upon becoming the largest Asian American group in California, October was established as (Filipino American History Month) to acknowledge the first landing of Filipinos on October 18, 1587 in Morro Bay, California. It is widely celebrated by Fil-Ams.

Spectators at the annual Philippine Independence Day Parade in New York City

Major & Regional Celebrations in the United States

Date	Name	Region
January	Winter Sinulog	Philadelphia
April	PhilFest	(Tampa, FL)
May	Asian Pacific American Heritage Month	Nationwide, USA
May	Asian Heritage Festival	New Orleans
May	Filipino Fiesta and Parade	Honolulu
May	FAAPI Mother's Day	Philadelphia
May	(Flores de Mayo)	Nationwide, USA
June	Philippine Independence Day Parade	New York City
June	Philippine Festival	Washington, D.C.
June	Philippine Day Parade	(Passaic, NJ)
June	Pista Sa Nayon	(Vallejo, CA)
June	(New York Filipino Film Festival) at (The ImaginAsian) Theatre	New York City
June	Empire State Building commemorates Philippine Independence	New York City
June	(Philippine–American Friendship Day) Parade	Jersey City, NJ
June 12	Fiesta Filipina	San Francisco
June 12	Philippine Independence Day	Nationwide, USA
June 19	Jose Rizal's Birthday	Nationwide, USA
June		Seattle
July	Fil-Am Friendship Day	(Virginia Beach, VA)
July	Pista sa Nayon	Seattle
July	Filipino American Friendship Festival	San Diego
July	Philippine Weekend	(Delano, CA)
August 15 to 16	Philippine American Exposition	Los Angeles
August 15 to 16	Annual Philippine Fiesta	(Secaucus, NJ)
August	Summer Sinulog	Philadelphia
August	Historic Filipinotown Festival	Los Angeles
August	Pistahan Festival and Parade	San Francisco
September 25	Filipino Pride Day	Jacksonville, FL
September	Festival of Philippine Arts and Culture (FPAC)	Los Angeles
September	AdoboFest	Chicago
October	(Filipino American History Month)	Nationwide, USA
October	Filipino American Arts and Culture Festival (FilAmFest)	San Diego
October	Houston Filipino Street Festival	(Sugar Land, TX)
November	Chicago Filipino American Film Festival (CFAFF)	Chicago
December 16 to 24	Dawn Masses	Nationwide, USA
December 25	Pasko Christmas Feast	Nationwide, USA
December 30	(Jose Rizal Day)	Nationwide, USA

Notable people

Footnotes

1. Other nations and territories that were once part of the Spanish Empire, that were or are part of the United States, include the Florida,Texas,Mexican Cession,Gadsden Purchase,Puerto Rico,Guam,Panama Canal Zone, and Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands.

References

1. "Asian American and Pacific Islander Heritage Month: May 2021". Census.gov. Retrieved 2021-11-05.
2. "New Census data: More than 4 million Filipinos in the US". 17 September 2018.
3. Melen McBride. "HEALTH AND HEALTH CARE OF FILIPINO AMERICAN ELDERS". Stanford University School of Medicine. Stanford University. from the original on 22 October 2011. Retrieved 8 June 2011.,
4. "Statistical Abstract of the United States: page 47: Table 47: Languages Spoken at Home by Language: 2003" (PDF). United States Census Bureau. (PDF) from the original on 2010-07-05. Retrieved 2006-07-11.
5. Jonathan H. X. Lee; Kathleen M. Nadeau (2011). Encyclopedia of Asian American Folklore and Folklife. ABC-CLIO. pp. 333–334. ISBN . from the original on 2017-04-25. Retrieved 2017-04-25.
6. Lee, Jonathan H. X.; Nadeau, Kathleen M. (2011). Encyclopedia of Asian American Folklore and Folklife, Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 334. ISBN .Filipino Americans at Google Books
7. "Asian Americans: A Mosaic of Faiths, Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation". The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. Pew Research Center. 19 July 2012. from the original on 11 August 2018. Retrieved 18 August 2014. Religious Affiliations Among U.S. Asian American Groups - Filipino: 89% Christian (21% Protestant (12% Evangelical, 9% Mainline), 65% Catholic, 3% Other Christian), 1% Buddhist, 0% Muslim, 0% Sikh, 0% Jain, 2% Other religion, 8% Unaffiliated^[]
   "Asian Americans: A Mosaic of Faiths". The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. Pew Research Center. 19 July 2014. from the original on 28 April 2014. Retrieved 15 March 2017. Filipino Americans: 89% All Christian (65% Catholic, 21% Protestant, 3% Other Christian), 8% Unaffiliated, 1% Buddhist
8. Mercene, Floro L. (2007). Manila Men in the New World: Filipino Migration to Mexico and the Americas from the Sixteenth Century. The University of the Philippines Press. p. 161. ISBN . from the original on 2 May 2014. Retrieved 1 July 2009.
   Rodis 2006
9. Rodel Rodis (25 October 2006). . Inquirer. Archived from the original on 22 May 2011. Retrieved 4 May 2011.
10. . UH Office of Multicultural Student Services. University of Hawaii. Archived from the original on 3 June 2009. Retrieved 11 May 2009.
11. "Treaty of Paris ends Spanish–American War". History.com. A&E Television Networks, LLC. from the original on 12 May 2017. Retrieved 15 March 2017. Puerto Rico and Guam were ceded to the United States, the Philippines were bought for $20 million, and Cuba became a U.S. protectorate.
    Rodolfo Severino (2011). Where in the World is the Philippines?: Debating Its National Territory. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 10. ISBN . from the original on 2017-03-16. Retrieved 2017-03-16.
    Muhammad Munawwar (23 February 1995). Ocean States: Archipelagic Regimes in the Law of the Sea. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 62–63. ISBN . from the original on 16 March 2017. Retrieved 16 March 2017.
    Thomas Leonard; Jurgen Buchenau; Kyle Longley; Graeme Mount (30 January 2012). Encyclopedia of U.S. - Latin American Relations. SAGE Publications. p. 732. ISBN . from the original on 16 March 2017. Retrieved 16 March 2017.
12. "Asian American and Pacific Islander Heritage Month: May 2021". Census.gov. Retrieved 2021-11-05.
13. "Grid View: Table B02018 - Census Reporter". censusreporter.org. Retrieved 2024-07-02.
14. "Filipino population in U.S. now nearly 4.1 million — new Census data". INQUIRER.net USA. November 15, 2019. from the original on December 23, 2019. Retrieved April 4, 2020.
15. "Grid View: Table B02015 - Census Reporter". censusreporter.org. Retrieved 2024-07-02.
16. "Grid View: Table B02018 - Census Reporter". censusreporter.org. Retrieved 2024-07-02.
17. "Fil-Am: abbreviation Filipino American." 2011-11-16 at the Wayback Machine, allwords.com 2010-11-09 at the Wayback Machine, Date accessed: 29 April 2011
    Joaquin Jay Gonzalez III; Roger L. Kemp (18 February 2016). Immigration and America's Cities: A Handbook on Evolving Services. McFarland. p. 198. ISBN . from the original on 26 March 2021. Retrieved 23 February 2018.
    Stanley I. Thangaraj; Constancio Arnaldo; Christina B. Chin (5 April 2016). Asian American Sporting Cultures. NYU Press. p. 44. ISBN . from the original on 26 March 2021. Retrieved 23 February 2018.
18. Jon Sterngass (2007). Filipino Americans. Infobase Publishing. p. 13. ISBN . from the original on 2021-03-26. Retrieved 2018-02-23.
19. Howe, Marvine (26 February 1986). "IN U.S., PHILIPPINE-AMERICANS REJOICE". The New York Times. from the original on 15 February 2020. Retrieved 15 February 2020.
    Shulman, Robin (16 August 2001). "Many Filipino Immigrants Are Dropping Anchor in Oxnard". Los Angeles Times. from the original on 15 February 2020. Retrieved 15 February 2020.
    Allen, James P. (1977). "Recent Immigration from the Philippines and Filipino Communities in the United States". Geographical Review. 67 (2): 195–208. Bibcode:1977GeoRv..67..195A. doi:10.2307/214020. JSTOR 214020.
    American Chamber of Commerce of the Philippines (1921). Journal. p. 22. from the original on 2021-03-26. Retrieved 2020-11-27.
    
20. (Dawn Bohulano Mabalon) (29 May 2013). Little Manila Is in the Heart: The Making of the Filipina/o American Community in Stockton, California. Duke University Press. p. 20. ISBN . from the original on 26 March 2021. Retrieved 22 November 2018.
21. Marina Claudio-Perez (October 1998). (PDF). The California State Library. State of California. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 September 2011. Retrieved 30 April 2011. Filipino Americans are often shortened into Pinoy Some Filipinos believe that the term Pinoy was coined by the early Filipinos who came to the United States to distinguish themselves from Filipinos living in the Philippines. Others claim that it implies "Filipino" thoughts, deeds and spirit.
22. Madarang, Catalina Ricci S. (24 June 2020). "Is 'Filipinx' a correct term to use? Debate for 'gender-neutral' term for Filipino sparked anew". Interaksyon. Philippines: Philippine Star. Retrieved 10 November 2021.
    Chua, Ethan (6 September 2020). "Filipino, Fil-Am, Filipinx? Reflections on a National Identity Crisis". Medium. Retrieved 10 November 2021.
    Aguilar, Delia D.; Juan, E. San Jr. (10 June 2020). "Problematizing The Name "Filipinx": A Colloquy". Counter Currents. India: Binu Mathew. Retrieved 10 November 2021.
    Grana, Rhia D. (7 September 2020). "The new word for 'Filipino' has just been included in a dictionary—and many are not happy". ABS-CBN News. Philippines. Retrieved 10 November 2021.
    Cabigao, Kate (6 January 2021). "Are You Filipino or Filipinx?". Vice. New York. Retrieved 10 November 2021.
23. Loni Ding (2001). "Part 1. COOLIES, SAILORS AND SETTLERS". NAATA. PBS. from the original on 16 May 2012. Retrieved 20 August 2011. Most people think of Asians as recent immigrants to the Americas, but the first Asians—Filipino sailors—settled in the bayous of Louisiana a decade before the Revolutionary War.
24. Bonus, Rick (2000). Locating Filipino Americans: Ethnicity and the Cultural Politics of Space. Temple University Press. p. 191. ISBN . from the original on 2021-01-26. Retrieved 2017-05-19.
    "Historic Site". Michael L. Baird. from the original on 2011-06-24. Retrieved 2009-04-05.
25. Eloisa Gomez Borah (1997). (PDF). Anderson School of Management. University of California, Los Angeles. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 February 2012. Retrieved 25 February 2012.
26. Williams, Rudi (3 June 2005). . American Forces Press Service. U.S. Department of Defense. Archived from the original on June 15, 2007. Retrieved 26 August 2009.
27. Loni Ding (2001). "Part 1. COOLIES, SAILORS AND SETTLERS". NAATA. PBS. from the original on 16 May 2012. Retrieved 19 May 2011. Some of the Filipinos who left their ships in Mexico ultimately found their way to the bayous of Louisiana, where they settled in the 1760s. The film shows the remains of Filipino shrimping villages in Louisiana, where, eight to ten generations later, their descendants still reside, making them the oldest continuous settlement of Asians in America.
    Loni Ding (2001). "1763 FILIPINOS IN LOUISIANA". NAATA. PBS. from the original on 21 March 2012. Retrieved 19 May 2011. These are the "Louisiana Manila men" with presence recorded as early as 1763.
    Ohamura, Jonathan (1998). Imagining the Filipino American Diaspora: Transnational Relations, Identities, and Communities. Studies in Asian Americans Series. Taylor & Francis. p. 36. ISBN . from the original on 26 March 2021. Retrieved 30 September 2012.
28. "Ranching". National Geographic. 8 November 2011. from the original on 2020-04-15. Retrieved 2020-05-23.
29. Kenny, Jim (1994). "Dancing the Shrimp". Philippine Studies. 42 (3): 385–390. JSTOR 42633454.
30. Jim Zwick (March 4, 1996). "Remembering St. Louis, 1904: A World on Display and Bontoc Eulogy". Syracuse University. from the original on 2007-06-10. Retrieved 2007-05-25.
31. . . January 4, 2004. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007.
32. "Filipino-Americans in the U.S." Filipino-American Community of South Puget Sound. 2018. from the original on 4 February 2018. Retrieved 16 April 2018.
33. (PDF). Filipino American Lives. Temple University Press. March 1995. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 November 2014. Retrieved 19 April 2009.
34. (PDF). Filipino American Lives. Temple University Press. March 1995. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 November 2014. Retrieved 22 December 2014.
35. "Background Note: Philippines". Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs. United States Department of State. 31 January 2011. from the original on 22 January 2017. Retrieved 22 December 2014. There are an estimated four million Americans of Philippine ancestry in the United States, and more than 300,000 American citizens in the Philippines.
36. "Race Reporting for the Asian Population by Selected Categories: 2010". U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original on 12 October 2016. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
37. Public Information Office (9 November 2015). "Census Bureau Statement on Classifying Filipinos". United States Census Bureau. United States Department of Commerce. from the original on 26 May 2017. Retrieved 16 March 2017.
    Joan L. Holup; Nancy Press; William M. Vollmer; Emily L. Harris; Thomas M. Vogt; Chuhe Chen (September 2007). "Performance of the U.S. Office of Management and Budget's Revised Race and Ethnicity Categories in Asian Populations". International Journal of Intercultural Relations. 31 (5): 561–573. doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2007.02.001. PMC 2084211. PMID 18037976.
38. Jonathan Y. Okamura (11 January 2013). Imagining the Filipino American Diaspora: Transnational Relations, Identities, and Communities. Routledge. p. 101. ISBN . from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 17 March 2017.
39. Yengoyan, Aram A. (2006). "Christianity and Austronesian Transformations: Church, Polity, and Culture in the Philippines and the Pacific". In Bellwood, Peter; Fox, James J.; Tryon, Darrell (eds.). The Austronesians: Historical and Comparative Perspectives. Comparative Austronesian Series. Australian National University E Press. p. 360. ISBN .
    Abinales, Patricio N.; Amoroso, Donna J. (2005). State And Society In The Philippines. State and Society in East Asia Series. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 158. ISBN . from the original on 2021-01-26. Retrieved 2019-01-30.
    Natale, Samuel M.; Rothschild, Brian M.; Rothschield, Brian N. (1995). Work Values: Education, Organization, and Religious Concerns. Volume 28 of Value inquiry book series. (Rodopi). p. 133. ISBN . from the original on 2021-01-26. Retrieved 2019-01-30.
    Munoz, J. Mark; Alon, Ilan (2007). "Entrepreneurship among Filipino immigrants". In Dana, Leo Paul (ed.). Handbook of Research on Ethnic Minority Entrepreneurship: A Co-evolutionary View on Resource Management. Elgar Original Reference Series. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 259. ISBN . from the original on 26 March 2021. Retrieved 14 April 2013.
40. Irisa Ona (15 April 2015). "Fluidity of Filipino American Identity". Engaged Learning. Southern Methodist University. from the original on 17 March 2017. Retrieved 16 March 2017.
    The Historic Filipinotown Health Network; Semics LLC (November 2007). "Culture and Health Among Filipinos and Filipino-Americans in Central Los Angeles" (PDF). Search to Involve Pilipino Americans. (PDF) from the original on 17 March 2017. Retrieved 16 March 2017.
41. Bautista, Amanda Vinluan (May 2014). Filipino American Culture And Traditions: An Exploratory Study (PDF) (Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Social Work). California State University, Stanislaus. (PDF) from the original on 17 March 2017. Retrieved 16 March 2017.
42. See, Sarita Echavez (2009). The Decolonized Eye: Filipino American Art and Performance. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN . from the original on 2017-04-22. Retrieved 2017-04-21.
43. Tyner, James A. (2007). "Filipinos: The Invisible Ethnic Community". In Miyares, Ines M.; Airress, Christopher A. (eds.). Contemporary Ethnic Geographies in America. G - Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 264–266. ISBN .Filipino Americans at Google Books
44. Carlo Osi (26 March 2009). . Mind Feeds. Inquirer Company. Archived from the original on 26 August 2012. Retrieved 31 July 2012. In the United States, the Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese cultural groups often bond for organizational purposes, while Filipinos in general have not. Ethnically Filipino Americans are divided into (Pampangeno), Ilocano, Cebuano, Tagalog, and so forth.
45. Guevarra, Rudy P. Jr. (2008). ""Skid Row": Filipinos, Race and the Social Construction of Space in San Diego" (PDF). The Journal of San Diego History. 54 (1). (PDF) from the original on 12 May 2012. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
    Lagierre, Michel S. (2000). The global ethnopolis: Chinatown, Japantown, and Manilatown in American society. New York, New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 199. ISBN . from the original on 2021-03-26. Retrieved 2019-01-30.
46. Sterngass, Jon (2006). Filipino Americans. New York, New York: Infobase Publishing. p. 144. ISBN . from the original on 2021-01-26. Retrieved 2019-01-30.
47. Melendy, H. Brett. "Filipino Americans." Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America, edited by Gale, 3rd edition, 2014. Credo Reference, http://lpclibrary.idm.oclc.org/login?url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/galegale/filipino_americans/0?institutionId=8558
48. Dudzik, Beatrix; Go, Matthew C. (January 2019). "Classification Trends Among Modern Filipino Crania Using Fordisc 3.1". Forensic Anthropology. from the original on 2021-01-07. Retrieved 2020-09-24.
49. Posadas, Barbara Mercedes (1999). The Filipino Americans. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 48. ISBN . Filipino Americans at Google Books
50. Harold Hisona (14 July 2010). "The Cultural Influences of India, China, Arabia, and Japan". Philippine Almanac. Philippine Daily. from the original on 15 January 2013. Retrieved 18 April 2013.
    Varatarācaṉ, Mu (1988). . Histories of literature. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi. pp. 1–17. Archived from the original on 13 April 2015. Retrieved 19 April 2013.
51. Leupp, Gary P. (2003). Interracial Intimacy in Japan. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 52–3. ISBN .
52. Bryan, One (2003). Filipino Americans. ABDO. p. 22. ISBN .Filipino Americans at Google Books
53. The Latinos of Asia: How Filipino Americans Break the Rules of Race. Stanford University Press. 2016. p. 72. ISBN . from the original on 2021-03-26. Retrieved 2019-01-30.
54. Hugo Lopez, Mark; Manuel Krogstad, Jens; Passel, Jeffrey (23 September 2021). "Who is Hispanic?". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 4 March 2022. People with ancestries in Brazil, Portugal and the Philippines do not fit the federal government's official definition of "Hispanic" because the countries are not Spanish-speaking. For the most part, people who trace their ancestry to these countries are not counted as Hispanic by the Census Bureau, usually because most do not identify as Hispanic when they fill out their census forms. Only about 2% of immigrants from Brazil do so, as do 1% of immigrants from Portugal and 1% from the Philippines, according to the 2019 American Community Survey. These patterns likely reflect a growing recognition and acceptance of the official definition of Hispanics. In the 1980 census, 18% of Brazilian immigrants and 12% of both Portuguese and Filipino immigrants identified as Hispanic. But by 2000, the shares identifying as Hispanic dropped to levels closer to those seen today.
    Sadural, Epifanio (20 September 2017). "Dear Filipinos: We're Not Latino, We're Southeast Asian, Get Over It". The Odyssey. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
55. Faustinos, Belinda; Hoyos, Luis; Castaneda, Antonia; de la Garza, Rudolfo O.; Negron-Muntanaer, Frances; Pitti, Stephen J.; Rael-Galvez, Estevan; Rast, Raymond; Rivas-Rodriquez, Maggie; Ruiz, Vicki; Sanchez-Korrol, Virginia. "The National Park Service and American Latino Heritage". American Latino Heritage. United States Department of the Interior. from the original on 20 October 2020. Retrieved 18 February 2020.
56. Goodwin, Robert (5 March 2019). América: The Epic Story of Spanish North America, 1493-1898. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 24. ISBN . from the original on 26 March 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2020.
57. Bulmer-Thomas, Victor (27 March 2018). Empire in Retreat: The Past, Present, and Future of the United States. Yale University Press. pp. 48–52. ISBN . from the original on 30 December 2020. Retrieved 27 November 2020.
58. Amend, Allison (2010). Hispanic-American Writers. Infobase Publishing. p. 9. ISBN . from the original on 2021-01-26. Retrieved 2020-11-27.
59. "Cultural Resource Regional EthnoHistory". Geothermal Leasing in the Western United States: Environmental Impact Statement. United States Department of the Interior. May 2008. pp. I–59–60. from the original on 2021-03-26. Retrieved 2020-02-19.
60. Bras, Marisabel (22 January 2011). "The Changing of the Guard: Puerto Rico in 1898". The World of 1898: The Spanish-American War. Library of Congress. from the original on 29 August 2011. Retrieved 18 February 2020.
61. Herman, Doug (15 August 2017). "A Brief, 500-Year History of Guam". Smithsonian Magazine. Smithsonian Institution. from the original on 28 February 2020. Retrieved 18 February 2020.
    Ph.D., H. Micheal Tarver; Slape, Emily (25 July 2016). The Spanish Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 43. ISBN . from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2020.
62. 1959 Congressional Record, Vol. 105, Page H17062
    Berguido, Fernando (Fall 2011). "The Big Ditch: How America Took, Built, Ran and Ultimately Gave Away the Panama Canal". ReVista. Harvard University. from the original on 19 February 2020. Retrieved 18 February 2020.
63. "Pacific Islanders: Territorial Status and Representation". History, Art & Archives. United States House of Representatives. from the original on 19 February 2020. Retrieved 18 February 2020.
    Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. Bureau of International Organization Affairs, Office of United Nations Political Affairs. 1956. pp. 4–5. from the original on 2021-03-26. Retrieved 2020-11-27.
64. Kramer, Paul (2006). "Race-Making and Colonial Violence in the U.S. Empire: The Philippine-American War as Race War". Diplomatic History. 30 (2): 169–210. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7709.2006.00546.x.
65. Kevin R. Johnson (2003). Mixed Race America and the Law: A Reader. NYU Press. pp. 226–227. ISBN . from the original on 2017-03-17. Retrieved 2017-03-17.
    Yen Le Espiritu (11 February 1993). Asian American Panethnicity: Bridging Institutions and Identities. Temple University Press. p. 172. ISBN . from the original on 17 March 2017. Retrieved 17 March 2017.
66. Jeffrey S. Passel; Paul Taylor (29 May 2009). "Who's Hispanic?". Hispanic Trends. Pew Research Center. from the original on 4 March 2017. Retrieved 15 March 2017. In the 1980 Census, about one in six Brazilian immigrants and one in eight Portuguese and Filipino immigrants identified as Hispanic. Similar shares did so in the 1990 Census, but by 2000, the shares identifying as Hispanic dropped to levels close to those seen today.
    Westbrook, Laura (2008). "Mabuhay Pilipino! (Long Life!): Filipino Culture in Southeast Louisiana". Louisiana Folklife Program. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana Department of Culture, Recreation & Tourism. from the original on 18 May 2018. Retrieved 16 March 2017.
67. Sri Kuhnt-Saptodewo; Volker Grabowsky; Martin Grossheim (1997). "Colonialism, Conflict and Cultural Identity in the Philippines". Nationalism and Cultural Revival in Southeast Asia: Perspectives from the Centre and the Region. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 247. ISBN . from the original on 2021-03-26. Retrieved 2019-03-02.
    Garcia, Gabriel (29 September 2016). "Filipinos helped shape America of today". Anchorage Daily News. from the original on 6 March 2019. Retrieved 2 March 2019.
    Paul A. Rodell (2002). Culture and Customs of the Philippines. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 17. ISBN . from the original on 2021-03-26. Retrieved 2019-03-02.
    Barrameda, Ina (8 May 2018). "Confessions of an Inglisera". Buzzfeed News. from the original on 6 March 2019. Retrieved 2 March 2019.
68. Esmaquel II, Paterno (21 October 2016). "Envoy reminds PH: 43% of OFW remittances come from US". Rappler. Philippines. from the original on 6 March 2019. Retrieved 2 March 2019.
69. Joaquin Jay Gonzalez (1 February 2009). Filipino American Faith in Action: Immigration, Religion, and Civic Engagement. NYU Press. p. 66. ISBN . from the original on 26 March 2021. Retrieved 2 March 2019.
70. Jonathan Y. Okamura (11 January 2013). "Imagining the Filipino American Diaspora". Imagining the Filipino American Diaspora: Transnational Relations, Identities, and Communities. Routledge. p. 106. ISBN . from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 2 March 2019.
71. Orendian, Simone (17 July 2013). "Remittances Play Significant Role in Philippines". VOA. from the original on 5 June 2017. Retrieved 2 March 2019.
    Victoria P. Garchitoreno (May 2007). Diaspora Philanthropy: The Philippine Experience (PDF) (Report). Convention on Biological Diversity. (PDF) from the original on 6 March 2019. Retrieved 2 March 2019.
    Taylor, Marisa (27 March 2006). "Filipinos follow their hearts home". The Virginia-Pilot. Norfolk, Virginia. from the original on 21 June 2018. Retrieved 2 March 2019.
72. Eric J. Pido (5 May 2017). Migrant Returns: Manila, Development, and Transnational Connectivity. Duke University Press. pp. 153–. ISBN . from the original on 26 March 2021. Retrieved 2 March 2019.
73. Garcia, Nelson (23 April 2017). "Special: Traveling to find lost heritage". KUSA. Denver. from the original on 26 March 2021. Retrieved 2 March 2019.
    Tagala, Don (27 September 2018). ""Diskubre" New Travel Reality Series Brings Young Filipino American Cast Overseas". Balitang American. Redwood Shores, California. from the original on 6 March 2019. Retrieved 2 March 2019.
    Faye Caronan (30 May 2015). Legitimizing Empire: Filipino American and U.S. Puerto Rican Cultural Critique. University of Illinois Press. pp. 151–152. ISBN . from the original on 30 December 2020. Retrieved 2 March 2019.
74. Shyong, Frank (28 April 2018). "These boxes are a billion-dollar industry of homesickness for Filipinos overseas". Los Angeles Times. from the original on 4 March 2019. Retrieved 2 March 2019.
    Diana Mata-Codesal; Maria Abranches; Karina Hof (9 August 2017). "A Hard Look at the Balikbayan Box: The Philippine Disapora's Export Hospitality". Food Parcels in International Migration: Intimate Connections. Springer. pp. 94–114. ISBN . from the original on 26 March 2021. Retrieved 2 March 2019.
75. Fong, Rowena (2004). . Guilford Press. p. 70. ISBN . Archived from the original on July 28, 2009. Retrieved 2009-05-14.
    Andres, Tomas Quintin D. (1998). People empowerment by Filipino values. Rex Bookstore, Inc. p. 17. ISBN . from the original on 2021-03-26. Retrieved 2009-05-14.
    Pinches, Michael (1999). Culture and Privilege in Capitalist Asia. Routledge. p. 298. ISBN .Filipino Americans at Google Books
    Roces, Alfredo; Grace Roces (1992). Culture Shock!: Philippines. Graphic Arts Center Pub. Co. ISBN . Filipino Americans at Google Books
76. J. Nicole Stevens (30 June 1999). "The History of the Filipino Languages". Linguistics 450. Brigham Young University. from the original on 2 May 2017. Retrieved 16 March 2017. The Americans began English as the official language of the Philippines. There were many reasons given for this change. Spanish was still not known by very many of the native people. As well, when Taft's commission (which had been established to continue setting up the government in the Philippines) asked the native people what language they wanted, they asked for English (Frei, 33).
    Stephen A. Wurm; Peter Mühlhäusler; Darrell T. Tryon (1 January 1996). Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas: Vol I: Maps. Vol II: Texts. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 272–273. ISBN . from the original on 17 March 2017. Retrieved 17 March 2017.
77. Don T. Nakanishi; James S. Lai (2003). Asian American Politics: Law, Participation, and Policy. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 198. ISBN . from the original on 2016-01-07. Retrieved 2015-10-16.
78. Bankston III, Carl L. (2006). "Filipino Americans". In Gap Min, Pyong (ed.). Asian Americans: Contemporary Trends and Issues. Sage focus editions. Vol. 174. Pine Forge Press. p. 196. ISBN . from the original on 2011-05-09. Retrieved 2015-10-16.
79. Osalbo, Jennifer Guiang (Spring 2011). "Education" (PDF). Filipino American Identity Development and its Relation to Heritage Language Loss (Master of Arts). California State University, Sacramento. (PDF) from the original on 12 December 2019. Retrieved 2 July 2019.
    Guevarra, Ericka Cruz (26 February 2016). "For Some Filipino-Americans, Language Barriers Leave Culture Lost in Translation". KQED. San Francisco Bay Area. from the original on 3 July 2019. Retrieved 2 July 2019.
    Ph.D., Kevin L. Nadal (15 July 2010). Filipino American Psychology: A Collection of Personal Narratives. AuthorHouse. p. 63. ISBN . from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 3 July 2019.
80. Ryan, Camille (August 2013). (PDF) (Report). United States Census Bureau. American Community Survey Reports. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 February 2016. Retrieved 13 May 2018.
81. Nucum, Jun (2 August 2017). "So what if Tagalog is 3rd most spoken language in 3 US states?". Philippine Daily Inquirer. from the original on 14 May 2018. Retrieved 13 May 2018.
82. (PDF). Secretary of State. State of California. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 September 2011. Retrieved 30 April 2011.
83. Malabonga, Valerie. (2019). Heritage Voices: Programs - Tagalog 2011-09-28 at the Wayback Machine.
    Blancaflor, Saleah; Escobar, Allyson (30 October 2018). "Filipino cultural schools help bridge Filipino Americans and their heritage". NBC News. from the original on 2 March 2019. Retrieved 2 March 2019.
84. "Ilokano Language & Literature Program". Communications department. University of Hawaii at Manao. 2008. from the original on 26 September 2011. Retrieved 1 May 2011.
85. Joyce Newman Giger (14 April 2014). Transcultural Nursing: Assessment and Intervention. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 407. ISBN . from the original on 7 January 2016. Retrieved 16 October 2015.
86. Potowski, Kim (2010). Language Diversity in the USA. Cambridge University Press. p. 106. ISBN . from the original on March 26, 2021. Retrieved July 24, 2012.
    Ruether, Rosemary Radford, ed. (2002). Gender, Ethnicity, and Religion: Views from the Other Side. Fortress Press. p. 137. ISBN . from the original on March 26, 2021. Retrieved July 24, 2012.
    Axel, Joseph (January 2011). Language in Filipino America (PDF) (Doctoral dissertation). Arizona State University. (PDF) from the original on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 12 April 2017.
87. "Leave the Filipinx Kids Alone". Esquiremag.ph. from the original on 2020-10-23. Retrieved 2020-09-18.
88. Toledo, John (September 15, 2020). "Filipino or Filipinx?". INQUIRER.net. from the original on September 17, 2020. Retrieved September 18, 2020.
89. "Asian Americans: A Mosaic of Faiths". Pew Research Center. 19 July 2012. from the original on 16 July 2013. Retrieved 28 April 2019.
90. Professor Susan Russell. "Christianity in the Philippines". Center for Southeast Asian Studies. Northern Illinois University. from the original on May 11, 2019. Retrieved July 24, 2012.
91. Cindy Kleinmeyer (June 2004). (PDF). Center for Southeast Asian Studies. Northern Illinois University. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 3, 2012. Retrieved July 22, 2012.
    Gonzales, Joseph; Sherer, Thomas E. (2004). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Geography. Penguin. p. 334. ISBN . from the original on January 26, 2021. Retrieved July 24, 2012.
92. Nadal, Kevin (2011). Filipino American Psychology: A Handbook of Theory, Research, and Clinical Practice. . p. 43. ISBN . from the original on March 26, 2021. Retrieved July 24, 2012.
93. Mark Juergensmeyer (25 August 2011). The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions. Oxford University Press. p. 383. ISBN . from the original on 26 March 2021. Retrieved 20 April 2018.
    Bellwood, Peter; Fox, James J.; Tyron, Darrell; Yengoyan, Aram A. (April 1995). . The Austronesians. Australia National University. ISBN . Archived from the original on 2017-02-17. Alt URL 2021-03-26 at the Wayback Machine
    America. America Press. 1913. p. 8. from the original on 2021-03-26. Retrieved 2018-04-20.
    Catholic World. Paulist Fathers. 1902. p. 847. from the original on 2021-03-26. Retrieved 2018-04-20.
94. Laderman, Gary; León, Luís D. (2003). Religion and American Cultures: An Encyclopedia of Traditions, Diversity, and Popular Expressions, Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 28. ISBN . from the original on January 26, 2021. Retrieved July 24, 2012.
95. Records of the American Catholic Historical Society of Philadelphia. American Catholic Historical Society of Philadelphia. 1901. from the original on 2020-11-25. Retrieved 2018-04-20.
96. Thema Bryant-Davis; Asuncion Miteria Austria; Debra M. Kawahara; Diane J. Willis Ph.D. (30 September 2014). Religion and Spirituality for Diverse Women: Foundations of Strength and Resilience: Foundations of Strength and Resilience. ABC-CLIO. p. 122. ISBN . from the original on 26 March 2021. Retrieved 20 April 2018.
97. Jonathan H. X. Lee; Kathleen M. Nadeau (2011). Encyclopedia of Asian American Folklore and Folklife. ABC-CLIO. p. 357. ISBN . from the original on 2021-03-26. Retrieved 2018-04-20.
    Sucheng Chan (1991). Asian Americans: an interpretive history. Twayne. p. 71. ISBN . from the original on 2021-03-26. Retrieved 2018-04-20.
98. Thomas A. Tweed (28 June 2011). America's Church: The National Shrine and Catholic Presence in the Nation's Capital. Oxford University Press. pp. 222–224. ISBN . from the original on 26 March 2021. Retrieved 20 April 2018.
    Broadway, Bill (2 August 1997). "50-ton Symbol of Unity to Adorn Basilica". Washington Post. from the original on 22 April 2018. Retrieved 19 April 2018.
99. . Philippine Apostolate / Archdiocese of new York. Archived from the original on 2008-08-03. Retrieved 2007-08-30.
    Fr. Diaz (1 August 2005). "Church of Filipinos opens in New York". The Manila Times. from the original on 26 March 2021. Retrieved 24 July 2012.
100. Mark Gray; Mary Gautier; Thomas Gaunt (June 2014). "Cultural Diversity in the Catholic Church in the United States" (PDF). United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. (PDF) from the original on 16 March 2017. Retrieved 16 March 2017. Some 76 percent of Asian, Native Hawaiian, or Pacific Islander Catholics are estimated to self-identify as Filipino (alone and in combinations with other identities).
101. Lipka, Michael (9 January 2015). "5 facts about Catholicism in the Philippines". Fact Tank. Pew Research. Archived from the original on 10 January 2015. Retrieved 19 April 2018.
102. Tony Carnes; Fenggang Yang (1 May 2004). Asian American Religions: The Making and Remaking of Borders and Boundaries. NYU Press. p. 46. ISBN . from the original on 26 March 2021. Retrieved 20 April 2018.
103. Stephen M. Cherry (3 January 2014). Faith, Family, and Filipino American Community Life. Rutgers University Press. pp. 149–150. ISBN . from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 20 April 2018.
104. Gardner, F. (1906). The Journal of American Folklore: Philippine (Tagalog) Superstitions. American Folklore Society.
105. Bautista, A. V. (2014). Filipino American Culture and Traditions: An Exploratory Study. California State University.
106. Cowen, Tyler (2012). An Economist Gets Lunch: New Rules for Everyday Foodies. Penguin. p. 118. ISBN . from the original on 26 March 2021. Retrieved 14 September 2012. Yet, according to one source, there are only 481 Filipino restaurants in the country;
107. Shaw, Steven A. (2008). Asian Dining Rules: Essential Strategies for Eating Out at Japanese, Chinese, Southeast Asian, Korean, and Indian Restaurants. New York, New York: HarperCollins. p. 131. ISBN . from the original on 2021-03-26. Retrieved 2019-01-30.
108. Dennis Clemente (1 July 2010). . Philippine Daily Inquirer. Archived from the original on 18 March 2012. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
109. Alice L. McLean (28 April 2015). Asian American Food Culture. ABC-CLIO. p. 127. ISBN . from the original on 21 March 2017. Retrieved 20 March 2017.
110. Woods, Damon L. (2006). The Philippines: a global studies handbook. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. p. 250. ISBN . from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
     Jennifer Jensen Wallach; Lindsey R. Swindall; Michael D. Wise (12 February 2016). The Routledge History of American Foodways. Routledge. p. 402. ISBN . from the original on 22 March 2017. Retrieved 22 March 2017.
111. Sokolov, Raymond (1993). Why We Eat What We Eat: How Columbus Changed the Way the World Eats. New York, New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 51. ISBN . from the original on 2021-03-26. Retrieved 2019-01-30.
112. "A Brief History of Filipinos in Hawaii". Center for Philippine Studies. University of Hawaii-Manoa. 2010. from the original on 23 December 2014. Retrieved 9 April 2013.
113. Carpenter, Robert; Carpenter, Robert E.; Carpenter, Cindy V. (2005). Oahu Restaurant Guide 2005 With Honolulu and Waikiki. Havana, Illinois: Holiday Publishing Inc. p. 20. ISBN . from the original on 2021-03-26. Retrieved 2019-01-30.
114. Johnson-Kozlow, Marilyn; Matt, Georg; Rock, Cheryl; de la Rosa, Ruth; Conway, Terry; Romero, Romina (25 June 2011). "Assessment of Dietary Intakes of Filipino-Americans: Implications for Food Frequency Questionnaire Design". Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior. 43 (6): 505–510. doi:10.1016/j.jneb.2010.09.001. PMC 3204150. PMID 21705276.
115. KATRINA STUART SANTIAGO (8 June 2011). "Balut as Pinoy pride". GMA. from the original on 13 June 2011. Retrieved 2 July 2011. The balut is one claim to fame we're uncertain about, seeing as it is equated with hissing cockroaches on Fear Factor. Talk about bringing us back to the dark ages of being the exotic and barbaric brown siblings of America.
116. Carlo Osi (26 March 2006). . Global Nation. Archived from the original on 26 August 2012. Retrieved 2 July 2011.
117. Keli Dailey (9 February 2012). "Andrew Zimmern's eating through San Diego". San Diego Union Tribune. from the original on 2 May 2015. Retrieved 11 February 2013. "Tita's sisig, best I have ever tasted . San Diego Philippine (sic) food is crazy good," he tweeted.
118. Fernandez, Doreen (2003). "Culture Ingested: On the Indigenization of Phillipine Food". Gastronomica. 3: 58–71. doi:10.1525/gfc.2003.3.1.58.
119. Amy Scattergood (25 February 2011). "Off the menu". Los Angeles Times. from the original on 6 December 2010. Retrieved 21 January 2011.
120. Laudan, Rachel (1996). The food of Paradise: exploring Hawaii's culinary heritage. Seattle: University of Hawaii Press. p. 152. ISBN . from the original on 2021-03-26. Retrieved 2019-01-30.
121. Alejandro, Reynaldo (1985). The Philippine cookbook. New York, New York: Penguin. pp. 12–14. ISBN . Retrieved June 30, 2011.
     Civitello, Linda (2011). Cuisine and Culture: A History of Food and People. John Wiley and Sons. p. 263. ISBN . Retrieved June 30, 2011. Just as Filipino people are part Malay, Chinese and Spanish, so is the cuisine of their seven-thousand-island nation
     Philippines Country Study Guide. Int'l Business Publications. 2007. p. 111. ISBN . Retrieved June 30, 2011. Throughout the centuries, the islands have incorporated the cuisine of the early Malay settlers, Arab and Chinese traders, and Spanish and American colonizers along with other Oriental and Occidental accent and flavours.^[]
     Morgolis, Jason (February 6, 2014). "Why is it so hard to find a good Filipino restaurant?". Public Radio International. Retrieved December 17, 2014. Philippine food has Chinese, Malaysian, Spanish and American influences—all cultures that have shaped the Philippines.
122. Melanie Henson Narciso (2005). Filipino Meal Patterns in the United States of America (PDF) (Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Master of Science Degree). University of Wisconsin-Stout. (PDF) from the original on 26 March 2012. Retrieved 13 September 2012.
123. Kristy, Yang (30 July 2011). "Filipino Food: At Least One Reason to Envy California". Dallas Observer. from the original on 10 October 2012. Retrieved 13 September 2012.
     Bray, Jared (2 February 2011). . ABS-CBN. North America Bureau. Archived from the original on 21 March 2012. Retrieved 13 September 2012.
     Berndes, Barry (1981). The SAN DIEGAN - 41st Edition. The SAN DIEGAN. p. 85. ISBN . from the original on 2021-03-26. Retrieved 2019-01-30.
     Vergara, Benito (2008). Pinoy Capital: The Filipino Nation in Daly City. Asian American history and culture. Temple University Press. pp. 41, 149. ISBN . from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 13 September 2012.
     Tovin Lapan (3 December 2009). "Training day at Tita's Kitchenette". San Diego Union Tribune. from the original on 2 May 2015. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
124. Krean Given (13 November 2012). "In Southern California, Filipino restaurants crowd the strip malls". Boston Globe. from the original on 22 November 2012. Retrieved 9 April 2013.
     Marc Ballon (16 September 2002). "Jollibee Struggling to Expand in U.S." Los Angeles Times. from the original on 24 April 2017. Retrieved 9 April 2013.
     Berger, Sarah (3 April 2019). "Why everyone is obsessed with Jollibee fast food — from its sweet spaghetti to fried chicken better than KFC". CNBC. New York. from the original on 15 August 2019. Retrieved 14 August 2019.
125. Mishan, Ligaya (15 November 2011). "Authentic Filipino Modern Times". The New York Times. from the original on 3 January 2018. Retrieved 9 January 2018.
     Wells, Pete (29 November 2016). "Review of Bad Saint in New York Times". The New York Times. from the original on 4 January 2018. Retrieved 9 January 2018.
     Mishan, Ligaya (12 March 2018). "Filipino Food Finds a Place in the American Mainstream". The New York Times. from the original on 15 April 2018. Retrieved 15 April 2018.
126. "Nicole Ponseca Aims to Bring Filipino Food 'to the Masses'". NBC News. 11 October 2016. from the original on 4 January 2018. Retrieved 9 January 2018.
     Rocha, Michael James (19 April 2018). "San Diego chefs to showcase Filipino cuisine at screening of 'Ulam: Main Dish' documentary". San Diego Union-Tribune. from the original on 19 April 2018. Retrieved 19 April 2018.
     Kauffman, Jonathan (7 January 2016). "The Bay Area's Filipino Food Movement sparks a national conversation". San Francisco Chronicle. from the original on 20 April 2018. Retrieved 19 April 2018.
     "Ep. 2, Barkada: L.A.'s Exploding Filipino Food Movement". The Migrant. KCET. 24 October 2016. from the original on 20 April 2018. Retrieved 19 April 2018.
127. Neff, Lydia (8 October 2016). "Filipino Food Movement panned as it goes to Oakland, Calif". Philippine Daily Inquirer. from the original on 20 April 2018. Retrieved 19 April 2018.
128. Knowlton, Andrew (16 August 2016). "No. 02". Bonappetit.com. from the original on 4 January 2018. Retrieved 9 January 2018.
129. Rothman, Jordana. "Food & Wine Restaurants of the Year 2018". Food & Wine. from the original on 15 April 2018. Retrieved 15 April 2018.
130. Kim, Gene; Appolonia, Alexandra (16 August 2017). "Andrew Zimmern: Filipino food will be the next big thing in America — here's why". Businessinsider.com. from the original on 4 January 2018. Retrieved 9 January 2018.
131. McNeilly, Claudia (1 June 2017). "How Filipino Food Is Becoming the Next Great American Cuisine". Vogue. from the original on 21 April 2018. Retrieved 20 April 2018.
132. Kane, Peter Lawrence (21 February 2019). "FOB Kitchen Deserves to Become a Filipino Hotspot". SF Weekly. from the original on 22 February 2019. Retrieved 23 February 2019.
133. Kuroki, Yusuke (2015). "Risk Factors for Suicidal Behaviors Among Filipino Americans: A Data Mining Approach". American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 85 (1): 34–42. doi:10.1037/ort0000018. PMID 25110976.
134. Mendoza, S. Lily; Perkinson, Jim (2003). "Filipino "Kapwa" in Global Dialogue: A Different Politics of Being-With the "Other"". Intercultural Communication Studies. 12: 177–194.
135. Nadal, Kevin (2011). Filipino American Psychology: A Handbook of Theory, Research, and Clinical Practice. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
136. Samura, Michelle (2014). "Wrestling with expectations: An Examination of How Asian American College Students Negotiate Personal, Parental, and Societal Expectations". Journal of College Student Development. 56 (6): 602–618. doi:10.1353/csd.2015.0065. S2CID 143082945. from the original on 2018-04-13. Retrieved 2019-09-24.
137. Ocampo, Anthony Christian (2016). The Latinos of Asia: How Filipino Americans Break the Rules of Race. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
138. Dominador D. Buhain (1998). A History of Publishing in the Philippines. Rex Bookstore, Inc. pp. 30–39. ISBN . OCLC 39887298.
139. Virginia Mansfield-Richardson (23 June 2014). Asian Americans and the Mass Media: A Content Analysis of Twenty United States Newspapers and a Survey of Asian American Journalists. Routledge. ISBN .
140. Vengua, Jean (Fall 2010). (PDF) (dissertation). University of California, Berkeley. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 1 February 2021.
141. Fuentecilla, Jose V. (April 2013). Fighting from a Distance: How Filipino Exiles Helped Topple a Dictator. University of Illinois Press. ISBN .
142. Rick Bonus (2000). Locating Filipino Americans: Ethnicity and the Cultural Politics of Space. Temple University Press. pp. 130–. ISBN . OCLC 247680319.
143. Debra L. Merskin, ed. (12 November 2019). The SAGE International Encyclopedia of Mass Media and Society. SAGE Publications. ISBN . OCLC 1130315057.
144. Glenda Tibe Bonifacio (15 November 2013). Pinay on the Prairies: Filipino Women and Transnational Identities. UBC Press. pp. 221–. ISBN . OCLC 1036280558.
145. Joaquin Jay Gonzalez (1 February 2009). Filipino American Faith in Action: Immigration, Religion, and Civic Engagement. NYU Press. pp. 7–9. ISBN .
146. Thomas Chen (26 February 2009). . PERSPECTIVE MAGAZINE. Archived from the original on 26 August 2014. Retrieved 4 March 2013. A survey of Filipino Americans in California—the second largest Asian American ethnic group and traditionally Republican voters
147. Vergara, Benito (2009). Pinoy Capital: The Filipino Nation in Daly City. Asian American History & Culture. Temple University Press. pp. 111–12. ISBN .
148. Jon Sterngass (1 January 2009). Filipino Americans. Infobase Publishing. p. 128. ISBN .
149. Jim Lobe (16 September 2004). "Asian-Americans lean toward Kerry". Asia Times. Archived from the original on 2008-09-19. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
150. Bendixen & Associates and The Tarrance Group (14 September 2004). . New American Media. Pacific News Service. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
151. Gus Mercado (November 10, 2008). . Philippine Daily Inquirer. Archived from the original on 27 February 2012. Retrieved 22 October 2012. A pre-election survey of 840 active Filipino community leaders in America showed a strong shift of undecided registered voters towards the Obama camp in the last several weeks before the elections that gave Senator Barack Obama of Illinois a decisive 58–42 share of the Filipino vote.
152. Mico Letargo (19 October 2012). "Fil-Ams lean towards Romney – survey". Asian Journal. from the original on 23 October 2012. Retrieved 22 October 2012. In 2008, 50 percent of the Filipino community voted for President Barack Obama (the Democrat candidate back then) while 46 percent voted for Republican Senator John McCain.
153. Thomas Chen (26 February 2009). . PERSPECTIVE. Harvard University. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
154. "In The Know: 2.6 million Filipino-Americans". Philippine Daily Inquirer. 19 October 2012. from the original on 22 October 2012. Retrieved 22 October 2012.
155. Joaquin Jay Gonzalez III; Roger L. Kemp (2 March 2016). Immigration and America's Cities: A Handbook on Evolving Services. McFarland. p. 201. ISBN . from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 13 April 2018.
156. Ujala Sehgal; Glenn Magpantay (17 January 2013). "New Findings: Asian American Vote in 2012 Varied by Ethnic Group and Geographic Location". Press release. Asian American Legal Defense and Education Fund. from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 7 April 2013.
157. Wang, Hansi Lo (18 April 2017). "Trump Lost More Of The Asian-American Vote Than The National Exit Polls Showed". NPR. from the original on 8 March 2018. Retrieved 20 June 2019.
158. Asian Americans Advancing Justice (15 September 2020). 2020 Asian American Voter Survey (National) (Report). Retrieved 9 November 2021.
159. Ocampo, Anthony C. (16 October 2020). "I Went to a 'Filipinos for Trump' Rally. Here's What I Found". Cololines. New York: Race Forward. Retrieved 9 November 2021.
     Gottlieb, Benjamin (7 October 2020). "Abortion, immigration, China: Why some LA Filipino Americans are supporting Trump". KCRW. Artesia, California. Retrieved 9 November 2021.
160. Robles, Raissa (31 October 2020). "US election: Filipino-Americans lean towards Biden, but Trump still exerts a pull". South China Morning Press. Retrieved 9 November 2021.
     . CNN Philippines. 4 November 2020. Archived from the original on 10 November 2021. Retrieved 9 November 2021.
161. Ramos, Christa Marie (9 November 2020). "Up to 60% of Fil-Am voters estimated to have voted for Biden, says PH envoy". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved 9 November 2021.
162. Ichimura, Anri (7 January 2021). "Weirdest Moment of the U.S. Capitol Riot: A Walis Tambo Being Paraded by a Filipino Trump Supporter". Esquire. Philippines.
     Mendiola, Ritchel; Oriel, Christina M. (9 January 2021). "Pinoy 'Walis Tambo' In A Sea Of Red: Fil-Am Trump Supporters Among Those Who Stormed US Capitol". Asian Journal. Retrieved 13 November 2021.
     Edwards, Jonathan (28 May 2021). "FBI arrests suspected Capitol insurrectionist in Norfolk, flexes investigative muscle". The Virginian-Pilot. Norfolk. Retrieved 13 November 2021.
163. Tomacruz, Sofia (7 January 2021). "Filipinos among Trump supporters who stormed US Capitol". Rappler. Esquire Financing Inc. Retrieved 7 November 2021.
164. Elemia, Camille (3 November 2020). "Why many Filipino Americans are still voting for Donald Trump". Rappler. Retrieved 9 November 2021.
165. "Gun Control is an Asian American Issue". 13 June 2016.
166. Reimers, David M. (2005). Other Immigrants: The Global Origins of The American People. NYU Press. p. 173. ISBN .
167. Edmund M. Silvestre (18 January 2009). "A Fil-Am on Capitol Hill". The Philippine Star. Retrieved 29 April 2011. There are now three members of U.S. Congress with Filipino lineage: Rep. Robert "Bobby" Scott, an African-American representing Virginia's 3rd congressional district; and Sen. John Ensign of Nevada.
     Maxwell, Rahasaan (5 March 2012). Ethnic Minority Migrants in Britain and France: Integration Trade-Offs. Cambridge University Press. p. 206. ISBN . from the original on 26 March 2021. Retrieved 30 January 2019. These numbers include politicians with only the slightest connection to the Philippines. For example, Bobby Scott of Virginia is commonly considered an African American and his only connection to the Philippines is one maternal grandmother. John Ensign of Nevada only has one Filipino great-grandparent.
168. Peter Urban (3 May 2011). "In final speech to Senate, Ensign apologizes to colleagues". Las Vegas Review-Journal. from the original on 4 May 2011. Retrieved 3 May 2011.
169. Samson Wong (15 November 2012). . AsianWeek. Archived from the original on 19 November 2012. Retrieved 26 November 2012.
170. Jonathan Strong (17 January 2012). "How Rep. Steve Austria Became a Sacrificial Republican". Roll Call. from the original on 19 November 2012. Retrieved 26 November 2012.
     Rachel Weiner (30 December 2011). "Ohio Republican Rep. Steve Austria retiring". Washington Post. from the original on 18 October 2019. Retrieved 26 November 2012.
171. Henni Espinosa (8 November 2012). "Fil-Ams who won and lost in the US elections". ABS-CBN. Milpitas, California. from the original on 15 November 2012. Retrieved 26 November 2012.
     Bill Sizemore (7 November 2012). "Results: Scott cruises to re-election in 3rd District". The Virginian-Pilot. from the original on 12 November 2012. Retrieved 26 November 2012.
172. Almadin-Thornhill, Lenn (4 December 2018). "Virginia Rep. Bobby Scott on TJ Cox, Beginning A New Term in Congress". Balitang America. San Francisco, California. from the original on 13 February 2019. Retrieved 12 February 2019.
     "2 Fil-Ams take oath as members of 116th US Congress". GMA News. Philippines. 5 January 2019. from the original on 13 February 2019. Retrieved 12 February 2019.
173. "Fil-Am Rep. TJ Cox Concedes In Race For California's 21st Congressional District". Asian Journal. 10 December 2020. Retrieved 1 February 2022.
174. Martinez, Kathleen Melissa (2007). (PDF) (Master of Arts in Communication, Culture and Technology thesis). Georgetown University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 October 2011. Retrieved 18 March 2011.
175. Carlos H. Conde (11 May 2004). "Philippine Elections Are Marred by Violence". The New York Times. from the original on 11 May 2013. Retrieved 5 July 2012. This was also the first time the Philippines allowed absentee voting for Filipinos overseas. About 200,000 of the 350,000 overseas voters cast their votes.
     (PDF). National Statistical Coordination Board. 12 March 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 February 2013. Retrieved 3 July 2012.
176. Chen, Edith Wen-Chu (2010). Yoo, Grace J. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Asian American Issues Today, Volume 1. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. p. 28. ISBN . from the original on 2021-01-26. Retrieved 2019-01-30.
177. "Batas Pambansa Bilang. 185". Chanrobles Virtual law Library. March 16, 1982. from the original on 2008-12-27. Retrieved 2008-06-02. (Section 2)
     . Supreme Court E-Library. March 28, 1996. Archived from the original on December 27, 2008. Retrieved 2008-06-02. (Section 5)
178. Nadia Trinidad; Don Tagala (14 May 2013). "Why most Filipinos in US didn't vote". ABS CBN North America Bureau. from the original on 15 May 2013. Retrieved 15 May 2013.
179. Jamal Thalji (16 November 2001). "Student charged in fight will swim at state meet". St. Petersburg Times. from the original on 7 January 2016. Retrieved 5 July 2012.
180. Nelson, Shane (2008). "Personal Best". Honolulu Magazine. from the original on 8 September 2012. Retrieved 5 July 2012.
181. . Consulate General of the Philippines in Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 12 July 2012. Retrieved 5 July 2012.
182. (PDF). Temple University Press. Temple University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 November 2014. Retrieved 27 April 2011. Since 1979, over 40,000 Filipinos have been admitted annually, making the Philippines the second largest source of all immigration, surpassed only by Mexico.
183. "Immigration Preferences and Waiting Lists". lawcom.com. from the original on 2008-05-08. Retrieved 2008-05-22.
184. . Manila Times. Archived from the original on 2007-06-10. Retrieved 2006-12-15.
185. (PDF). Bureau of Consular Affairs. United States Secretary of State. 1 November 2016. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2017.
186. "Families of Filipino World War II vets largely still waiting for visa, dozen years later". Public Radio International. 10 April 2013. from the original on 20 April 2013. Retrieved 5 May 2013.
187. Rick Bonus (2000). Locating Filipino Americans: Ethnicity and the Cultural Politics of Space. Temple University Press. pp. 44–45. ISBN . from the original on 2021-01-26. Retrieved 2017-05-19.
     Alex Tizon. "My Family's Slave". The Atlantic. The Atlantic Monthly Group. from the original on 17 May 2017. Retrieved 18 May 2017.
188. Hoefer, Michael; Rytina, Nancy; Baker, Bryan C. (January 2010). "Estimates of the Unauthorized Immigrant Population Residing in the United States: January 2009" (PDF). DHS Office of Immigration Statistics. United States Department of Homeland Security. (PDF) from the original on 29 April 2010. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
189. Stoney, Sierra; Batalova, Jeanne (5 June 2013). "Filipino Immigrants in the United States". Migration Information Source. ISSN 1946-4037. from the original on 18 December 2014. Retrieved 21 December 2014.
190. Layug, Margaret Claire (10 August 2017). "Trump's Raise Act to cost 400k Filipinos chance to live in US, says expert". GMA News. Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines. from the original on 21 April 2018. Retrieved 20 April 2018.
191. Philip Ella Juico (6 February 2013). "Ex-Star columnist makes mark in US". Philippine Star. from the original on 6 February 2013. Retrieved 24 February 2013.
     Gonzalez, Joaquin (2009). Filipino American Faith in Action: Immigration, Religion, and Civic Engagement. NYU Press. p. 24. ISBN . from the original on 2021-01-26. Retrieved 2019-01-30.
192. Nadal, Kevin (2011). Filipino American Psychology: A Handbook of Theory, Research, and Clinical Practice. John Wiley & Sons. p. 73. ISBN . from the original on 2021-01-26. Retrieved 2019-01-30.
193. Antonio T. Tiongson; Edgardo V. Gutierrez; Ricardo Valencia Gutierrez; Ricardo V. Gutierrez (2006). Positively No Filipinos Allowed: Building Communities and Discourse. Temple University Press. p. 191. ISBN . from the original on 2016-01-07. Retrieved 2015-10-16.
194. M. Licudine v. D. Winter, JR 1086, p. 5 (U.S. District Court for D.C. 2008).
     Nadal, Kevin (2011). Filipino American Psychology: A Handbook of Theory, Research, and Clinical Practice. John Wiley & Sons. p. 47. ISBN . from the original on 2021-03-26. Retrieved 2019-01-30.
195. Henry Yu. "Asian Americans" (PDF). Department of History. University of British Columbia. (PDF) from the original on 13 April 2013. Retrieved 19 July 2012.
196. Guerrero, AP; Nishimura, ST; Chang, JY; Ona, C; Cunanan, VL; Hishinuma, ES (2010). "Low cultural identification, low parental involvement and adverse peer influences as risk factors for delinquent behaviour among Filipino youth in Hawai'i". International Journal of Social Psychiatry. 56 (4): 371–387. doi:10.1177/0020764009102772. PMID 19617281. S2CID 40241211.
197. Okamura, Jonathan Y. (2008). Ethnicity and inequality in Hawaiʻi. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Temple University Press. p. 176. ISBN . from the original on 2021-01-26. Retrieved 2019-01-30.
     Corky Trinidad (11 December 2005). "The vanishing Filipinos". Honolulu Star-Bulletin. from the original on 16 November 2011. Retrieved 8 May 2011.
198. Kiang, Lisa; Takeuchi, David T. (2009). "Phenotypic Bias and Ethnic Identity in Filipino Americans". Social Science Quarterly. 90 (2): 428–445. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6237.2009.00625.x. PMC 2811329. PMID 20107617.
     David, E.J.R. (2008). (PDF). Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology. 14 (2): 118–127. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.624.1514. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.14.2.118. PMID 18426284. S2CID 46240895. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 August 2011. Retrieved 8 May 2011.
199. Okamura, Jonathan Y. (1998). Ng, Franklin (ed.). Imagining the Filipino American diaspora: transnational relations, identities, and communities. Taylor & Francis. p. 28. ISBN . from the original on 2021-03-26. Retrieved 2019-01-30.
     McFerson, Hazel M. (2002). Mixed blessing: the impact of the American colonial experience on politics and society in the Philippines. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 2. ISBN . from the original on 2021-03-26. Retrieved 2019-01-30.
200. Okamura, Jonathan Y. (1998). Ng, Franklin (ed.). Imagining the Filipino American diaspora: transnational relations, identities, and communities. Taylor & Francis. p. 25. ISBN . from the original on 2021-03-26. Retrieved 2019-01-30.
201. Nadal, Kevin (2010). Filipino American Psychology: A Collection of Personal Narratives. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons. p. 35. ISBN . from the original on 2021-03-26. Retrieved 2019-01-30.
202. Haya El Nasser (13 May 2008). "Study: Some immigrants assimilate faster". USA Today. from the original on 5 March 2011. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
     N.C. aizenman (13 May 2008). "Study Says Foreigners in U.S. Adapt Quickly". The Washington Post. from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
     Chen, Desiree; Yates, Ronald E.; Hirsley, Michael; Matsushita, Elaine T. (27 April 1992). "Filipino Americans Set Standard For Fitting In". Chicago Tribune. from the original on 6 March 2019. Retrieved 2 March 2019.
203. Amy Scattergood (25 February 2010). "Off the menu". Los Angeles Times. from the original on 22 December 2011. Retrieved 30 May 2011. That Filipino food has, by and large, not been assimilated into mainstream American cuisine is ironic, given how adept Filipinos historically have been at assimilating into other dominant cultures (the country is Catholic; English is the second official language), and given how assimilated the myriad cuisines have been within the country itself.
204. Nakanishi, Don T.; James S. Lai (2003). Asian American politics: law, participation, and policy. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 121. ISBN . from the original on 2021-01-26. Retrieved 2019-01-30.
205. "Asian Americans: Growth and Diversity". from the original on 22 December 2011. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
     Bernardo, Joseph (2014). From "Little Brown Brothers" to "Forgotten Asian Americans": Race, Space, and Empire in Filipino Los Angeles (Ph.D.). University of Washington. from the original on 2015-09-17. Retrieved 2014-12-03.
     David, E.J.R. (6 April 2016). "Why Are Filipino Americans Still Forgotten and Invisible?". Psychology Today. Sussex Publishers, LLC. from the original on 26 March 2021. Retrieved 16 March 2017.
206. Nakano, Satoshi (June 2004). (PDF). Seventh Annual International Philippine Studies: 53–81. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 2 January 2015. Alt URL 2017-05-25 at the Wayback Machine
207. Whitney, Philip B. (July–September 1972). "Forgotten Minority: Filipinos in the United States". Bulletin of Bibliography and Magazine Notes (3): 73–83.
     Cathy J. Schlund-Vials; K. Scott Wong; Jason Oliver Chang (10 January 2017). Asian America: A Primary Source Reader. Yale University Press. p. 239. ISBN . from the original on 26 March 2021. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
     Lon Kurashige; Alice Yang (6 July 2015). Major Problems in Asian American History. Cengage Learning. p. 338. ISBN . from the original on 30 December 2020. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
208. Maxwell, Rahsaan (2012). Ethnic Minority Migrants in Britain and France: Integration Trade-Offs. Cambridge University Press. pp. 205–208, 274. ISBN .
209. Okamura, Jonathan Y. (1998). Imagining the Filipino American diaspora: transnational relations, identities, and communities. Taylor & Francis. p. 55. ISBN .
     Sterngass, Jon (2006). Filipino Americans. New York, New York: Infobase Publishing. p. 104. ISBN .
210. Mendoza, Susanah Lily L. (2002). Between the homeland and the diaspora: the politics of theorizing Filipino and Filipino American identities : a second look at the poststructuralism-indigenization debates. Psychology Press. p. 231. ISBN . Retrieved 16 March 2011.
211. Buenavista, Tracy Lachica; Jayakumar, Uma M.; Misa-Escalante, Kimberly (2009). "Contextualizing Asian American education through critical race theory: An example of U.S. Pilipino college student experiences" (PDF). New Directions for Institutional Research. 2009 (142): 69–81. doi:10.1002/ir.297. hdl:2027.42/63048. (PDF) from the original on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
212. Sterngass, Jon (2006). Filipino Americans. New York, New York: Infobase Publishing. p. 92. ISBN .
213. Belinda A. Aquino (10 December 2006). "The Filipino Century in Hawaii: Out of the Crucible" (PDF). Center for Philippine Studies. University of Hawaii at Manoa. (PDF) from the original on 7 January 2016. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
214. "The Invisible Minority". The Harvard Crimson. January 17, 2003. from the original on November 17, 2015. Retrieved November 16, 2015.
215. "America's 'Invisible' Minority Is Ready for Its Closeup". Voice of America. February 23, 2015. from the original on September 28, 2015. Retrieved November 16, 2015.