Greek colonisation refers to the expansion of Archaic Greeks, particularly during the 8th–6th centuries BC, across the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea.
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The Archaic expansion differed from the Iron Age migrations of the Greek Dark Ages, in that it consisted of organised direction (see oikistes) away from the originating metropolis rather than the simplistic movement of tribes, which characterised the aforementioned earlier migrations. Many colonies, or apoikia (Greek: ἀποικία, transl. "home away from home"), that were founded during this period eventually evolved into strong Greek city-states, functioning independently of their metropolis.
Motives
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The reasons for the Greeks to establish colonies were strong economic growth with the consequent overpopulation of the motherland, and that the land of these Greek city states could not support a large city. The areas that the Greeks would try to colonise were hospitable and fertile.
Characteristics
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The founding of the colonies was consistently an organised enterprise by the metropolis (mother city), although in many cases it collaborated with other cities. The place to be colonised was selected in advance with the goal of offering business advantages, but also security from raiders. In order to create a feeling of security and confidence in the new colony, the choice of place was decided according to its usefulness. The mission always included a leader nominated by the colonists. In the new cities, the colonists parceled out the land, including farms. The system of governance usually took a form similar to that of the metropolis.
Greek colonies were often established along coastlines, especially during the period of colonisation between the 8th and 6th centuries BC. Many Greek colonies were strategically positioned near coastlines to facilitate trade, communication, and access to maritime resources. These colonies played a crucial role in expanding Greek culture, trade networks, and influence throughout the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions. While some colonies were established inland for various reasons, coastal locations were generally more common due to the Greeks' strong connection to the sea.
History
The Greeks started colonising around the beginning of the 8th century BC when the (Euboeans) founded (Pithecusae) in Southern Italy and Olynthus in Chalcidice, Greece. Subsequently, they founded the colonies of Cumae, Zancle, Rhegium and Naxos.
At the end of the 8th century, Euboea fell into decline with the outbreak of the Lelantine War but colonial foundation continued by other Greeks such as the Ionians and Corinthians. The Ionians started their first colonies around the 7th century in Southern Italy, Thrace and on the Black Sea. Thera founded Cyrene and Andros, and Samos founded multiple colonies in the Northern Aegean.
Locations
Macedonia and Thrace
Numerous colonies were founded in Northern Greece, chiefly in the region of Chalcidice but also in the region of Thrace.
Chalcidice was settled by Euboeans, chiefly from Chalcis, who lent their name to these colonies. The most important settlements of the Euboeans in Chalcidice were Olynthos (which was settled in collaboration with the Athenians), (Torone), (Mende), (Sermyle), (Aphytis) and (Cleonae) in the peninsula of Athos. Other important colonies in Chalcidice were (Acanthus), founded by colonists from Andros and Potidaea, a colony of Corinth. Thasians with the help of the Athenian Callistratus of Aphidnae founded the city of (Datus). During the Peloponnesian War, the Athenians with the (Hagnon, son of Nikias) founded the city of Ennea Hodoi (Ἐννέα ὁδοὶ), meaning nine roads, at the current location of the "Hill 133" north of Amphipolis in Serres.
Numerous other colonies were founded in the region of Thrace by the Ionians from the coast of Asia Minor. Important colonies were Maroneia, and Abdera. The (Milesians) also founded Abydos and (Cardia) on the Hellespont and Rhaedestus in Propontis. The (Samians) colonised the island of Samothrace, becoming the source of its name. Finally, the Parians colonised Thasos under the leadership of the (oecist) and father of the poet Archilochus, Telesicles.
In 340 BC, while Alexander the Great was regent of Macedon, he founded the city of (Alexandropolis Maedica) after defeating a local Thracian tribe.
Magna Graecia: mainland Italy and Sicily
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Magna Graecia was the name given by the Romans to the coastal areas of Southern Italy in the present-day Italian regions of Calabria, Apulia, Basilicata, Campania and Sicily which were extensively settled by Greeks.
Greeks began to settle in southern Italy in the 8th century BC.
The first great migratory wave directed towards the western Mediterranean was that of the Euboeans aimed at the Gulf of Naples who, after (Pithecusae) (on the isle of Ischia), the oldest Greek settlement in Italy, founded Cumae nearby, their first colony on the mainland, and then in the Strait of Messina, Zancle in Sicily, and nearby on the opposite coast, Rhegium.
The second wave was of the Achaeans who concentrated initially on the Ionian coast (Metapontion, (Poseidonia), Sybaris, Kroton), shortly before 720 BC. At an unknown date between the 8th and 6th centuries BC the Athenians, of Ionian lineage, founded (Scylletium) (near today's Catanzaro).
In Sicily the Euboeans later founded Naxos, which became the base for the founding of the cities of Leontini, Tauromenion and Catania. They were accompanied by small numbers of Dorians and Ionians; the Athenians had notably refused to take part in the colonisation. The strongest of the Sicilian colonies was Syracuse, an 8th-century BC colony of the Corinthians.
Refugees from Sparta founded Taranto which evolved into one of the most powerful cities in the area. Megara founded Megara Hyblaea and Selinous; Phocaea founded Elea; Rhodes founded Gela together with the Cretans and Lipari together with Cnidus; the Locrians founded (Epizephyrean Locris). According to legend, (Lagaria) which was between Thurii and the river (Sinni River) was founded by Phocians.
Evidence of frequent contact between the Greek settlers and the indigenous peoples comes from (Timpone Della Motta) which shows influence of Greek style in Oneotroian pottery.
Many cities in the region became in turn metropoleis for new colonies such as the Syracusans, who founded the city of (Camarina) in the south of Sicily; or the Zancleans, who led the founding of the colony of (Himera). Likewise, Naxos, which founded many colonies while Sybaris founded the colony of (Poseidonia). Gela founded its own colony, Acragas.
With colonisation, Greek culture was exported to Italy with its dialects of the Ancient Greek language, its religious rites, and its traditions of the independent polis. An original Hellenic civilization soon developed, and later interacted with the native Italic civilisations. One of the most important cultural transplants was the Chalcidean/Cumaean variety of the Greek alphabet which was adopted by the Etruscans; the Old Italic alphabet subsequently evolved into the Latin alphabet, which became the most widely used alphabet in the world.
City | Year (BC) of foundation - by author | ||||
Thucydides | Eusebius | Jerome | Others | ||
Cumae | Κύμη | - | - | 1050(?) | - |
Metapontum | Μεταπόντιον | - | 773(?) | - | - |
Zancle | Ζάγκλη | - | 757/756 | - | 756 |
Naxos | Νάξος | 734 | 735 | 741 | - |
Syracuse | Συρακκούσες | 733 | 733 | 738/737 | 733 |
Lentini | Λεοντῖνοι | 728 | - | - | - |
Catania | Κατάνη | 728 | 733 | 737/736 | - |
Megara | Μέγαρα | 727 | - | - | - |
Reggio | Ερυθρά / Ρήγιον | - | - | - | c. 730 |
Milazzo | Μύλαι | - | 715(?) | 716(?) | - |
Sybaris | Σύβαρις | - | 708-707 | 709-708 | 721/720 |
Crotone | Κρότων | - | 709 | - | 709/708 |
Taranto | Τάρας | - | - | 706 | - |
Locri | Λοκροί Ἐπιζεφύριοι | - | 673 | 679 | c. 700 |
Poseidonia | Ποσειδωνία | - | - | - | 700(?) |
Gela | Γέλα | 688 | 688 | 691/690 | - |
Caulonia | Καυλωνία | - | - | - | c. 675 |
Acre | 663 | - | - | - | |
Casmene | Κασμέναι | 643 | - | - | - |
Selinunte | Σελινούς | 627 | 757(?) | 650/649 | 650 |
Himera | Ιμέρα | - | - | - | 648 |
Lipari | Μελιγουνίς | - | 627(?) | 629(?) | 580/576 |
Camarina | Καμάρινα | 598 | 598/597 | 601/600 | 598/596 |
Agrigento | Ακράγας | 580 | - | - | 580/576 |
Ionian Sea, Adriatic Sea, and Illyria
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The region of the Ionian Sea and that of Illyria were colonised strictly by Corinth. The Corinthians founded important overseas colonies on the sea lanes to Southern Italy and the west which succeeded in making them the foremost emporia of the western side of the Mediterranean. Important colonies of Corinth included (Leucada), Astacus, (Anactoreum), Actium, Ambracia, and Corcyra - all in modern-day western Greece.
The Syracusans also founded important colonies in Illyria, which evolved into important cities, (Apollonia) and Epidamnus, in present-day Albania. The fact that about the 6th century BC the citizens of Epidamnus constructed a Doric-style treasury at Olympia confirms that the city was among the richest of the (Ancient Greek world). An ancient account describes Epidamnos as 'a great power and very populated' city.(Nymphaeum) was another Greek colony in Illyria. The (Abantes) of Euboea founded the city of (Thronion at the Illyria).
Further west, colonists from the Greek city-state Paros in 385 BC founded the colony Pharos on the island of Hvar in the Adriatic, on the site of the present-day Stari Grad in Croatia. In the early 4th century BC the Greek tyrant of Syracus Dionysius I founded the colony Issa on the modern-day island of Vis, and traders from Issa then went on to found emporia in Tragurion (Trogir) and Epetion ((Stobreč)) on the Illyrian mainland in 3rd century BC.
In 1877 a Greek inscription was discovered in (Lumbarda) on the eastern tip of the island of Korčula in modern-day Croatia which talks about the founding of another Greek settlement there in the 3rd or 4th century BC, by colonists from Issa. The artifact is known as (Lumbarda Psephisma). Evidence of coinage on the Illyrian coast used for trade between the Illyrians and the Greeks can be dated to around the 4th century BC and minted in Adriatic colonies such as Issa and Pharos.
Black Sea and Propontis
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Although the Greeks had at one point called the Black Sea shore "inhospitable", according to ancient sources they eventually created 70 to 90 colonies. The colonization of the Black Sea was led by the Megarans and some of the Ionian cities such as Miletus, Phocaea and Teos. The majority of colonies in the region of the Black Sea and Propontis were founded in the 7th century BC.
The first phase (2nd half of the 7th c. BC)
In the area of Propontis, the Megarans founded the cities of (Astacus in Bithynia), (Chalcedonia) and Byzantium which occupied a privileged position. Miletus founded Cyzicus and the Phocaeans Lampsacus.
On the western shore of the Black Sea the Megarans founded the cities of (Selymbria) and a little later, (Nesebar). A little farther north in today's Romania the Milesians founded the cities of Histria, (Argame) and Apollonia.
In the south of the Black Sea the most important colony was Sinope which according to prevailing opinion was founded by Miletus some time around the middle of the 7th century BC. Sinope was founded with a series of other colonies in the Pontic region: Trebizond, Cerasus, (Cytorus), Cotyora, Cromne, (Pteria), (Tium), et al.
Further north from the Danube delta the Greeks colonised the islet, probably then a peninsula, of Barythmenis (modern Berezan) which evolved into the colony of (Borysthenes) in the next century.
The second phase (6th c. BC)
The most important colony founded on the southern shore of the Black Sea was a Megaran and Boeotian foundation: Heraclea Pontica in 560-550 BC.
On the north shore of the Black Sea Miletus was the first to start with Pontic Olbia and Panticapaeum (modern Kerch). In about 560 BC the Milesians founded Odessa in the region of modern Ukraine. On the Crimean peninsula (the Greeks then called it Tauric Chersonese or "Peninsula of the Bulls") they founded likewise the cities of Sympheropolis, (Nymphaeum) and Hermonassa. On the Sea of Azov (Lake Maiotis to the ancients) they founded Tanais (in Rostov), Tyritace, Myrmeceum, Cecrine and (Phanagoria), the last being a colony of the Teians.
On the eastern shore, which was known in ancient times as Colchis, today in Georgia and the autonomous region of Abkhazia, the Greeks founded the cities of Phasis and Dioscouris. The latter was called Sebastopolis by the Romans and Byzantines and is known today as Sukhumi.
Heraclea Pontica founded (Callatis) on the southern coast of Romania at the end of the 6th c. BC.
Later Colonies
Only a few colonies were founded during the Greek Classical period which included (Mesembria) (modern Nessebar) by the Megareans in 493 BC. Heraclea Pontica founded (Chersonesus Taurica) in Crimea at the end of the 5th or early 4th c. BC.
The ancient Greek settlement called (Manitra) of the 4th-3rd centuries BC near the town of Baherove in Crimea was discovered in 2018.
Wider Mediterranean
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The Greek colonies expanded as far as the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa.
Africa
In North Africa, on the peninsula of (Kyrenaika), colonists from Thera founded Kyrene, which evolved into a very powerful city in the region. Other colonies in Kyrenaika later included Barca, Euesperides (modern Benghazi), (Taucheira), and (Apollonia).
By the middle of the 7th century, the lone Greek colony in Egypt had been founded, (Naukratis). The pharaoh Psammitecus I gave a trade concession to Milesian merchants for one establishment on the banks of the Nile, founding a trading post which evolved into a prosperous city by the time of the Persian expedition to Egypt in 525 B.C.
2023 archaeological findings in Thonis-Heracleion at Egypt, suggested that Greeks, who were already allowed to trade in the city, "had started to take root" there as early as during the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt and that likely Greek mercenaries were employed to defend the city.
Similar to the emporion established in the Nile Delta it is possible there was a Greek trading colony established by the Euboians along the Syrian coast on the mouth of the Orontes river at the site (Al-Mina) in the early 8th century BC. The Greek colony of (Posideion) on the promontory Ras al-Bassit was colonised just to the south of the Orontes estuary later in the 7th century BC.
Diodorus Siculus mentions (Μεσχέλα), a city on the northern coast of Africa, founded by the Greeks after the Trojan War.
Rest of the Mediterranean
On the north side of the Mediterranean, the Phokaians founded Massalia on the coast of Gaul. Massalia became the base for a series of further foundations farther away in the region of Spain. Phokaia also founded (Alalia) in Corsica and Olbia in Sardinia. The Phokaians arrived next on the coast of the Iberian peninsula. As related by Herodotus, a local king summoned the Phokaians to found a colony in the region and rendered meaningful aid in the fortification of the city. The Phokaians founded (Empuries) in this region and later the even more distant (Hemeroskopeion).
List of Greek colonies before Alexander the Great (pre-336 BC)
This section does not any .(September 2023) |
Modern Albania
AL1. (Nymphaeum) AL2. Epidamnos AL3. (Apollonia) AL4. Aulon AL5. (Chimara) AL6. (Bouthroton) AL7. (Oricum) AL8. (Thronion)
Modern Bulgaria
* (Pseudo-Scymnus) writes that some say that the city of Bizone belongs to the barbarians, while others to be a Greek colony of (Mesembria).
BUL1. (Mesembria) BUL2. Odessos BUL3. Apollonia / (Antheia) BUL4. Agathopolis BUL5. Kavarna BUL6. (Pomorie) BUL7. (Naulochos) BUL8. (Krounoi) BUL9. (Pistiros) BUL10. (Anchialos) BUL11. Bizone * BUL12. (Develtos) BUL13. Heraclea Sintica BUL14. Beroe
Modern Croatia
C1. Salona C2. Tragyrion C3. Aspálathos C4. (Epidaurus) C5. Issa C6. Dimos C7. Pharos C8. Kórkyra Mélaina C9. (Epidaurum) C10. (Narona) C11. (Lumbarda)
Modern Cyprus
CY1. (Chytri) CY2. Kyrenia CY3.Golgi
Modern Egypt
E1. Naucratis
Modern France
F1. Agde F2. Massalia F3. F4. Olbia F5. Nicaea F6. Monoikos F7. Antipolis F8. (Alalia) F9. Rhodanousia F10. Athenopolis F11. Pergantium
* Abkhazia is recognised only by Russia and a small number of other countries.
G1. Bathys G2. (Triglite) G3. (Pityus) G4. Dioscurias G5. Phasis G6. Gyenos
Modern Greece
GR1. Potidaea GR2. Stageira GR3. (Acanthus) GR4. (Mende) GR5. Ambracia GR6. Corcyra GR7. Maroneia GR8. Krinides GR9. Olynthus GR10. Abdera GR11. Therma GR12. (Arethusa) GR13. Leucas GR14. Eion GR15. (Sane) GR16. Amphipolis GR17. (Argilus) GR18. (Sane) GR19. (Akanthos) GR20. (Astacus) GR21. (Galepsus) GR22. (Oesyme) GR23. (Phagres) GR24. (Datus) GR25. (Stryme) GR26. (Pistyrus) GR27. (Rhaecelus) GR28. (Dicaea) GR29. (Methoni) GR30. (Heraclea in Trachis) GR31. (Heraclea in Acarnania) GR32. (Anactorium) GR33. Sale GR34. (Drys) GR35. (Toroni) GR36. (Amorgos) GR37. Actium GR38. (Scabala) GR39. Philippi GR40. (Colonides) GR41. Oliarus GR42. Potidaea GR43. Thera GR44. Myrcinus GR45. (Tarphe) GR46. (Sollium)
Modern Italy
I1. Olbia I2. Adria I3. Ancona I4. (Parthenope) I5. Cumae I6. (Procida) I7. Dicaearchia I8. Neapolis I9. Poseidonia I10. Metapontum I11. Sybaris I12. Thurii I13. Taras I14. (Siris) I15. Crotona I16. (Gallipoli) I17. Elea I18. Messina I19. (Kale Akte) I20. Syracuse I21. Didyme I22. (Hycesia) I23. (Phoenicusa) I24. Therassía I25. Lipara/Meligounis I26. Epizepherean Locris I27. Rhegium I28. (Lentini) I29. Selinountas I30. Megara Hyblaea I31. Naxos I32. (Tauromenium) I33. Acragas I34. (Himera) I35. Gela I36. Catania I37. Leontini I38. (Ereikousa) I39. (Euonymos) I40. (Kamarina) I41. (Medma) I42. Hipponion I43. Heraclea Minoa I44. (Caulonia) I45. (Trotilon) I46. Pyxous I47. Mylae I48. (Laüs) I49. (Terina) I50. Rhegion I51. (Tindari) I52. (Macalla) I53. (Temesa) I54. Metauros I55. (Krimisa) I56. (Chone) I57. I58. Heraclea Lucania, (Siris) I59. (Scylletium) * I60. (Agathyrnum) I61. Adranon I62. (Akrillai) I63. (Casmenae) I64. Akrai I65. (Engyon) I66. (Thapsos) I67. (Pithekoussai) I68. (Castelmezzano) I69. Licata I70. Ortygia I71. (Lagaria) I72. Hydrus I73. (Mactorium) I74. (Helorus)
Modern Libya
L1. Barce L2. Cyrene L3. Balagrae L4. (Taucheira) L5. (Ptolemais) L6. Euesperides L7. Antipyrgus L8. (Apollonia) L9. (Cinyps) L10. (Menelai Portus)
Modern Montenegro
M1. Bouthoe
Modern North Macedonia
* Some historians believe that it was near the modern Resen (North Macedonia) while others believe that it was near the modern Vranje (Serbia).
MA1. (Damastion) * MA2. Heraclea Lyncestis
Modern Palestine (Gaza Strip)
- (Anthedon (Palestine)), probably a colony of (Anthedon (Boeotia)) from c. 520 BCE
Modern Romania
RO1. Tomis RO2. Histria/Istros RO3. Aegyssus RO4. (Stratonis) RO5. (Axiopolis) RO6. Kallatis
Modern Russia
RU1. Tanais RU2. (Kepoi) RU3. (Phanagoria) RU4. Bata RU5. Gorgippia RU6. Hermonassa RU7. RU8. Taganrog RU9. RU10. Patraeus RU11.
Modern Serbia
* Some historians believe that it was near the modern Resen (North Macedonia) while others believe that it was near the modern Vranje (Serbia).
SE1. (Damastion) *
Modern Spain
S1. (Portus Illicitanus) S2. (Akra Leuke) S3. S4. Hemeroscopeum S5. (Zakynthos) S6. Salauris S7. Rhode S8. Emporion S9. Kalathousa S10. Mainake S11. Menestheus's Limin S12. Kypsela S13. Helike
Modern Syria
SY1. (Posidium)
Modern Turkey
TR1. Selymbria TR2. Heraclea Pontica TR3. Cius TR4. Ephesus TR5. Dios Hieron TR6. (Iasos) TR7. Myndus TR8. (Selge) TR9. Priene TR10. Halicarnassus TR11. Miletus TR12. Tralles TR13. Phaselis TR14. Aspendos TR15. Side TR16. (Sillyon) TR17. Zephyrion TR18. (Kelenderis) TR19. (Mallus) TR20. (Amos) TR21. Byzantium TR22. Amaseia TR23. Amastris TR24. Ainos TR25. (Berge) TR26. (Perinthos) TR27. (Cardia) TR28. Chalcedon TR29. Nicomedia TR30. Abydos TR31. Sestos TR32. Lampsacus TR33. (Panormos) TR34. Cyzicus TR35. Ilion TR36. Sigeion TR37. Sinope TR38. (Tirebolu) TR39. Amisos TR40. (Tripolis) TR41. Cotyora TR42. Polemonion TR43. (Pharnakia) TR44. Kerasous TR45. Trapezous TR46. (Themiscyra) TR47. (Astacus in Bithynia) TR48. Assos TR49. Pitane TR50. Phocaea TR51. Smyrna TR52. Pergamon TR53. Teos TR55. Colophon TR56. (Patara) TR57. (Canae) TR58. (Bargylia) TR59. (Madytus) TR60. (Elaeus) TR61. (Tieion) TR62. Apamea Myrlea TR63. Klazomenai TR64. (Notion) TR65. (Parion) TR66. (Heraion Teichos) TR67. (Bisanthe) TR68. Erythrae TR69. (Priapus) TR70. Alopeconnesus TR71. (Limnae) TR73. (Crithote) TR74. (Pactya) TR75. Perinthus TR76. (Tium) TR77. (Teichiussa) TR78. (Triopium) TR79. (Placia) TR80. (Scylace) TR81. (Arisba) TR82. Apollonia TR83. (Apollonia ad Rhyndacum) TR84. Myrina TR85. (Pythopolis) TR86. (Cytorus) TR87. (Armene) TR88. (Kolonai) TR89. (Paesus) TR90. (Scepsis) TR91. Myus TR92. Mallus TR93. Mopsus TR94. (Caryanda) TR95. (Athenae) TR96. (Syrna) TR97. Cyme TR98. (Marathesium) TR99. Chrysopolis TR100. (Neonteichos) TR101. (Artace) TR102. (Semystra) TR103. (Cobrys) TR104. (Cypasis) TR105. Kydonies TR106. (Coryphas) TR107. (Heraclea (Aeolis)) TR108. (Gargara) TR109. (Lamponeia) TR110. Elaea TR111. (Mariandyn) TR112. (Claros) TR113. (Knidos) TR114. (Prusias ad Hypium) TR115. Dardanus TR116. (Pygela) TR117. (Temnos) TR118. Gryneium TR119. Aigai TR120. (Rhoiteion) TR121. (Cadrema) TR122. (Daminon Teichos) TR123. TR124. (Athymbra) TR125. (Carussa) TR126. (Termera) TR127. (Hamaxitus)
Modern Ukraine
* According to Herodotus, Geloni were originally Greeks who settle away from the coastal emporia among the Budini and their language evolved into half Greek and half Scythian.Pavel Jozef Šafárik wrote that they might be Greeks among the Slavs and Fins (Μιξέλληνες - half Greeks half barbarians).
U1. Borysthenes U2. Tyras U3. (Olbia) U4. (Nikonion) U5. Odessa U6. Panticapaeum U7. (Nymphaion) U8. (Tyritake) U9. Theodosia U10. Chersonesus U11. (Charax) U11. (Myrmekion) U12. Kerkinitis U13. (Kimmerikon) U14. (Kalos Limen) U15. Yalita U16. (Akra) U17.(Manitra) U18. (Gelonus)*
![image](https://www.wikiquery.en-us.nina.az/image/aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cud2lraXF1ZXJ5LmVuLXVzLm5pbmEuYXovaW1hZ2UvYUhSMGNITTZMeTkxY0d4dllXUXVkMmxyYVcxbFpHbGhMbTl5Wnk5M2FXdHBjR1ZrYVdFdlkyOXRiVzl1Y3k5MGFIVnRZaTloTDJFNUwwZHlhV1ZqYUdselkyaGxibDkxYm1SZmNHZ2xRek1sUWpadWFYcHBjMk5vWlc1ZlMyOXNiMjVwWlc0dWFuQm5Memd3TUhCNExVZHlhV1ZqYUdselkyaGxibDkxYm1SZmNHZ2xRek1sUWpadWFYcHBjMk5vWlc1ZlMyOXNiMjVwWlc0dWFuQm4uanBn.jpg)
Notes
References
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Further reading
- Zuchtriegel, Gabriel (2020). Colonization and Subalternity in Classical Greece: Experience of the Nonelite Population. Cambridge University Press; Reprint edition. ISBN .
- Lucas, Jason; Murray, Carrie Ann; Owen, Sara (2019). Greek Colonization in Local Context: Case Studies Exploring the Dynamics among Locals and Colonizers. University of Cambridge Museum of Classical Archaeology Monographs. Oxbow Books. ISBN .
- Tsetskhladze, Gocha R.; Atasoy, Sümer; Temür, Akın; Yiğitpaşa, Davut (2019). Settlements and Necropoleis of the Black Sea and Its Hinterland in Antiquity: Select Papers from the Third International Conference 'The Black Sea in Antiquity and Tekkeköy: An Ancient Settlement on the Southern Black Sea Coast', 27-29 October 2017, Tekkeköy, Samsun. Archaeopress. doi:10.2307/j.ctvwh8bw7. S2CID 241412939.
- Bosher, Kathryn (2016). Theater outside Athens: Drama in Greek Sicily and South Italy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN .
- Irad, Malkin (2013). A Small Greek World: Networks in the Ancient Mediterranean. Oxford University Press; Reprint edition. ISBN .
- Tsetskhladze, Gocha (2011). The Black Sea, Greece, Anatolia and Europe in the First Millennium BC. Peeters Publishers. ISBN .
- Rhodes, P. J. (2010). A History of the Classical Greek World: 478 - 323 BC. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN .
- Dietler, Michael; López-Ruiz, Carolina (2009). Colonial Encounters in Ancient Iberia: Phoenician, Greek, and Indigenous Relations. University Of Chicago Press. ISBN .
- Tsetskhladze, Gocha (2008). Greek Colonisation: An Account Of Greek Colonies and Other Settlements Overseas: Volume 2. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN .
- Tsetskhladze, Gocha (2006). Greek Colonisation: An Account Of Greek Colonies and Other Settlements Overseas: Volume 1. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN .
- Kirigin, Branko (2006). Pharos. The Parian Settlement in Dalmatia: A study of a Greek colony in the Adriatic. British Archaeological Reports. ISBN .
- Hall, Jonathan M. (2006). A History of the Archaic Greek World: ca. 1200-479 BCE. Wiley-Blackwel. ISBN .
- Cerchiai, Luca; Janelli, Lorena; Longo, Fausto; Edward Smith, Mark (2004). The Greek Cities of Magna Graecia and Sicily. J. Paul Getty Museum. ISBN .
- Tsetskhladze, Gocha (2004). The Archaeology of Greek Colonisation: Essays Dedicated to Sir John Boardman. Oxford University School of Archaeology; 2nd Revised edition. ISBN .
- Tsetskhladze, Gocha; Snodgrass, A. M. (2002). Greek Settlements in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea. British Archaeological Reports. ISBN .
- Graham (2001). Collected Papers on Greek Colonization. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN .
- Dominguez, Adolfo; Sanchez, Carmen (2001). Greek Pottery from the Iberian Peninsula: Archaic and Classical Periods. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN .
- Boardman, John; Solovyov, Sergei; Tsetskhladze, Gocha (2001). Northern Pontic Antiquities in the State Hermitage Museum. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN .
- Boardman, John (1999). The Greeks Overseas: Their Early Colonies and Trade. Thames & Hudson. ISBN .
- Tsetskhladze, Gocha R. (1998). The Greek Colonisation of the Black Sea Area. Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN .
- Isaac, Benjamin H. (1997). The Greek Settlements in Thrace Until the Macedonian Conquest. Studies of the Dutch Archaeological and Historical Society, Vol 10. Brill Academic Pub. ISBN .
- Treister, M Yu (1997). The Role of Metals in Ancient Greek History. Brill. ISBN .
- Cohen, Getzel M. (1996). The Hellenistic Settlements in Europe, the Islands, and Asia Minor. Hellenistic Culture and Society. University of California Press. ISBN .
- Irad, Malkin (1987). Religion and Colonization in Ancient Greece. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN .
- Sealey, Raphæl (1976). A History of the Greek City States, 700-338 B. C. University of California Press. ISBN .